NIIR

Contents

  1.	INTRODUCTION			



2.	LIQUID SOAPS AND HAND WASH			

		Method of Manufacture

		Raw Material Required



3.	LIQUID SOAP AND DETERGENTS			

		Product Introduction

		Method of Manufacture

		Liquid Detergents

		Weight Equivalents of DDBSA

		Molecular Weights

		Special Procedures for Compounding

	

4.	WASHING SOAP : LAUNDRY SOAP

FORMULATION			

		Manufacture of Laundry Neat Soap from Oil, Blend

		Harding of RBD

		Acid Wash for RBHT

		Salt Wash for Neem Oil

		Blending

		Neem Soap Manufacture

		Manufacture of Laundry Soap

		Step 1: Mixing of Sodium Silicate, China Clay and Salt

		Step 2: Cratcher Mixing Operation

		Step 3: Spray Drying

		Step 4: Cutting

		Step 5: Stamping

		Step 6: Wrapping

		Step 7: Packing

		Theory

		Process and Raw Material

		Product Profile

		Washing Soaps

		Brand Name

		Process

	

5.	ANTISEPTIC AND GERMICIDAL LIQUID SOAP			

		Hexachlorophene Soaps

		Control of Clarity

		Filtration

		Bottling and Packaging

	

6.	MANUFACTURING PROCESS AND 

FORMULATIONS OF VARIOUS SOAPS			

		(A) Washing Soaps

		1.	Washing Soap with Soap Stone (by Cold Process)

		Process

		2.	Washing Soap with Soda Silicate (by Cold Process)

		Process

		3. 	Washing Soap

		Process

		4.	Sunlight Type Washing Soap

		Process

		5.	Sunlight Type Washing Soap (Other Formula)

		Process

		6.	Washing Soap Made of Groundnut Oil Residue

		Process

		7.	Washing Soap (from Linseed Oil)

		Process

		8.	Washing Soap (made of Cottonseed Oil)

		Process

		Nerol Shop

		Process of Manufacturing

		9. Other Selected Formulas of Washing Soaps

		Process

		(B) Nerol Washing Soap

		Process of Manufacturing

		(C) Toilet Soaps

		Selected Formulas for Toilet Soaps

		For Toilet Soap Perfumes

		(D) Carbolic Soaps

		Process

		2. +-Lifeboy Type Soap

		Process

		3. Transparent Soap (Pears Types)

		Process 

		Transparent Soap (Another Formula)

		Process

		(E) Shaving Soaps

		Process

		Process

		(F) Special Soaps

		1. Borax Soap (For Pimples)

		Process

		2. Borax Soft Soap

		Process

		3. Soft Soap (Other Formula)

		Process

		4. Rug Cleaning Soap

		Process

		5. Dry-Cleaning Soap (Liquid)

		Process

		6. Soap used in the Bleaching of Jute

		Process

		7. Built Soaps for Cottons and Linens

		Process

		8. Sandle Soap

		Process

		(G) Vaseline Soap

		Process

		(H) Liquid Soap

		Process

		(I) Girt Soaps

		Process

		2. Hand Soap Paste with Mineral Abrasive

		Process

		3.	Powdered Hand Soap with Vegetable Abrasive and Lanolin

		Process

		(J) Depilatory Soaps

		Process

		(K) Metallic Soaps in protective coating industry

		Metals

		Method of Precipitation

		(L) Liquid Dental Soap

		(M) Medicated Soap

		Neem Soap

		Formulation

	

7.	HANDMADE SOAP			

		Properties

		Benefits of Handmade Soap

		Types of Handmade Soap

		Cold Process Soap

		Hot Process Soap

		Liquid Soap

		Transparent Soap

		Glycerin Soap

		Ready-Made Soap Bases

		Basic Ingredients in Handmade Soap

		Tools and Equipments

		Temperature Chart

		Handmade Soap Formulae

		Lavender Soap 

		Sweet Almond Oil Soap 

		Seagrass Soap 

		Cocoa and Shea Butter Soap

		Column Swirl Soap 

		Spoon Swirl Handmade Soap

		Cocoa Butter Soap 

		Coffee Soap

		Creamy Coconut Milk Soap

		Rose Milk Soap

		Sweet Citrus Honey

		White Camellia Oil Soap

		Basic Soap-Making Processes

		Cold Process 

		Hot Processes

		Moulds

		Purification and Finishing

	

8.	DETERGENT SOAP			

		Properties

		Uses & Applications

		Detergent Cake Formulation

		Manufacturing Process

		Process Flow Diagram

	

9.	PACKAGING OF SOAPS			

		Soap Packaging Benefits

		Factors to Consider

		Types of Soap Packaging

		Soap Packaging Machines 

	

10.	LIQUID DETERGENT			

		Uses of Liquid Detergent

		Liquid Detergent Formulations

		1.	Heavy Duty Liquid Detergent

		2.	Light Duty Liquid Detergent

		Manufacturing Process

		Process Flow Diagram

	

11.	DETERGENT POWDER			

		Properties of Detergent Powder

		Uses & Application

		Manufacturing Process

		Process Flow Diagram

	

12.	APPLICATION AND FORMULAE OF 

DETERGENTS			

		Foam

		Household Cleaning

		Heavy-Duty Laundering

		Formula 9

		Spray-dried Heavy-duty Household Hand-washing Powder

		Foam Control

		Formula 10

		Heavy-duty Fully Automatic Washing Machine Powder

		Formula 11

		Low-foaming Machine Powder for Soft-water Areas

		Formula 12

		Low-foaming Machine Powder for Soft-water Areas Using

		Formulae 13-14

		Spray- dried Household Low-foaming Laundry Powders

		Formulae 15, 16, 17, 18

		Heavy-duty Liquid Detergents

		Formula 19

		Heavy-duty Liquid Detergent with ‘Controlled Foam’

		Formula 20

		Heavy-duty Liquid Detergent and Bleach

		Formula 21

		Light-duty Household Liquid Detergent

		Formula 22

		Lotion-type Light-duty Liquid Detergent

		Formulae 23-27

		Light-duty Liquid Detergents

		Formula 28

		Household Fine-wash Spray-dried Powder

		Formula 29

		40 per cent Detergent Paste

		Formula 30

		Spray-dried General-purpose Powder

		Formula 31

		General-purpose Powder

		Formula 32

		General-purpose Powder

		Choice of Non-Ionic

		Concentrated Powders

		Mix Together

		Cold Water Washing

		Hard-Surface Cleaners

		Formula 33

		Hard-surface Cleaner

		Formula 34

		Hard-surface Cleaner

		Formula 35

		Aerosol Oven Cleaner

		Machine Dishwashing

		Formula 36

		Machine Dish-washing Powder for Soft-water Areas

		Formula 37

		Machine Dish-washing Powder for Moderately Hard-water Areas

		Formula 38

		Machine Dish-washing Powder for Hard-Water Areas

		Abrasive-Type Cleaners

		Formula 39

		Household Scouring Powder

		Formula 40

		Formula 41

		Household Scouring Liquid

		Miscellaneous Household Cleaners

		Formula 42

		Household Window-cleaning Liquid

		Formula 43

		Floor Cleaner

		Commercial Laundering

		Formula 44

		Spray-dried Industrial Laundry Powder

		Formula 45

		Industrial Laundry Powder not Spray-dried

		Solvent Detergents

		Formula 46

		Detergent-solvent Combination

		Formula 47

		Detergent-solvent Combination

		Formula 48

		Kerosene Water Solution	

		Formula 49

		Solvent detergent Combination

		Formula 50

		Solvent-detergents based on 100 per cent  ABS (So3 produced)

		Formula 51

		Dry-cleaning Detergent

		Carpet and Upholstery Cleaners

		Textile Dressing

		Formula 52

		Textile Scouring Paste

		Formula 53

		Textile Degumming Detergent Paste

		Mercerizing

		Food and Dairy Industries

		Formulae 54-56

		Food and Dairy Alkaline Detergent Cleaner

		Formula 57

		Bottle-washing Compound

		Detergent Sanitizers

		Formula 58 and Formula 59

		Metal Cleaners

		Formula 60

		Acid Cleaner for Water-cooling Systems

		Miscellaneous Cleaners

		Lavatory Cleaner

		Hand Cleaners

		Formula 75

		Hand Cleanser

		Formula 76

		Detergent Hand Cleanser

		Formula 77

		Hand Cleanser in Powder Form

		Waterless Hand Cleansers

		Formula 78

		Waterless Hand Cleanser

		Formula 79

		Waterless Hand Cleanser

		Formula 80

		Waterless Hand Cleanser

	

13.	DETERGENT BAR			

		Formulation

		Sequence of Additions

		Type of Defects

		Manufacturing Process of Detergent Bar

	

14.	DETERGENTS OF VARIOUS TYPES			

		(A) Detergent Powder

		Method

		Other Formulaes

		Process

		List of Plant and Machinery

		Raw Materials Used per day

		Dairy Equipment Cleaners

		Bottle Cleaners

		Preparation of Caustic Gluconate Solution

		Dairy Equipment Cleaners

		Dish Washing Detergents

		(a)	For China Dishes by Soft Water

		(b)	In Soft as well as Moderately Hard Water

		(c) 	For China Dishes by Hard Water

		(d)	For Plasticware/Chinaware

		Other Dish-Washing Compounds (Vim Type Cleaning-Powder)

		1. For Aluminium Ware

		2. For Glass, China and Siverware

		3. Washing Powder (For Cottons)

		4. Washing compounds (For Woollens)

		5. Washing Compound (For Wool)

		6. Rug Cleaners

		7. Floor Cleaners (Building Surface)	

		8. Wall Cleaner

		9. Floor Cleaner (Light Duty Powder)

		10. Heavy Duty Cleaner

		11. Various Head Cleaning Compounds

		12. Cleaner for Artificial Teak

		13. Stoneware Glaze

		14. Paint Brush Cleaner

		15. Auto Polish

		Process

		Direction for Use

		Process

		Direction for Use

		Process

		Direction for Use

		Scouring Powders

		Floor Cleaners

		1. Common Wall Cleaner

		2. Light Duty Cleaner (Powder)

		3. Heavy Duty Cleaner

		4. Cleaner for Building Surface

		Sanitary Cleaner

		List of Plants and Machinery

		Raw Material

		Metal cleaners

		Aluminium Cleaner

		Steel Cleaner

		Cleaner for Iron Applied Prior to Galvanishing

		Liquid Pine Scrub Soap for General Floor Scrubbing

		Wax Removing Cleaner (Liquid)

		Sweeping Compound (Oil Base)

		Painted Surface Cleaner (Powder)

		(B) Liquid Detergents

		All Purpose Liquid Cleaners

		Dish Washing Liquid Detergents

		Formulations for Mechanical Dishwasher

		Hand Washing Liquid Detergent

		Miscellaneous Cleaners

		Textile Scouring Paste

		Degumming Paste for Wool

		Liquid Cleaners for Hard Surface

		Window Panes Cleaning Liquid

		Dry Cleaning Detergent

		Process

		(C) Detergent (Nirma Type)

		Formulations for the Nirma Type Detergent Powder

		List of Plant and Machinery

		Raw Materials Required/Month

		(D) Detergent Cake

		Manufacturing Process for Detergent Cake Basis 1 TPD

		1. Sulfonation of Alkyl Benzene

		2. Separation Step

		3. Neutralization Stop

		4. Mixing of Ingredients

		5. Concentration of Slurry

		6. Making of Cake

		7. Packing

		8. Despatching

		List of Plant and Machinery

		Raw Materials Required per day

	

15.	FORMULATING LIQUID DETERGENTS			

		Requisites of Surfactants for Formulating Liquid Detergents

		Surfactants Most Commonly Used

		Builders 

		Viscosity Controllers

		Other Ingredients

		Household Liquid Detergents For Laundering

		Heavy Duty

		Typical Formulations

		Process

		Light Duty : (for Silk, Wool etc.)

		Shampoos

		Rug Cleaning Liquid Detergent Formulations

		A Recommended Formulation

	16.	PHENYL			

		Uses

		Properties

		Manufacturing Process

	

17.	FLOOR CLEANER			

		Composition of Floor Cleaner

		Uses of Floor Cleaner

		Raw Material Required for Floor Cleaner

		Manufacturing Process of Floor Cleaner

		Process Flow Diagram of Floor Cleaner

	

18.	TOILET CLEANER			

		Properties

		Features 

		Formulations of Toilet Cleaner

		Manufacturing Process of Toilet Cleaner

		Process Flow Diagram of Toilet Cleaner

	

19.	MOSQUITO COILS			

		Uses and Application

		Properties

		Basic Raw Material

		Manufacturing Process

		Process Flow Diagram

	

20.	NAPHTHALENE BALLS			

		Uses & Application

		Properties

		Manufacturing Process

		Process Flow Diagram 

	

21.	AIR FRESHENER (ODONIL TYPE)			

		Properties

		Uses and Applications

		Formulation for Preparing Odonil Type Solid	 Deodorant Cake

		Manufacturing Process

		Process Flow Diagram

	

22.	LIQUID HAND WASH AND SOAPS			

		Method of Manufacture

		Raw Material Required

	

23.	HAND SANITIZER			

		Physical and Chemical Properties

		Ingredients

		Uses

		Formulation of Herbal Hand Sanitizer

		Manufacturing Process

	

24.	AEROSOLS–WATER AND OIL BASED 

INSECTICIDE (Flies, Mosquitoes  Insect and Cockroach  Killer Spray)	

		Aerosol Container

		Formulation of Insecticide Aerosols

		Oil-Based Aerosol (OBA)

		Water-Based Aerosols (WBA)

		Alcohol-Based Aerosol

		Filling Process of Oil-based Insecticide Aerosols (U-t-C)

		The Production Process of Oil-Based Insecticide Aerosol

		The Preparation of Concentrate 

		The Preparation of Diluent Solution

		Filtration

		Filling Process of Water-Based Insecticide Aerosols (T-t-V method)

		Filling Process of Water-Based Insecticide Aerosols (U-t-C)

		Instruction of Process

		A. Procedures of Water-Based Aerosols

		B. Procedures of Oil-Based Aerosols

		C. Aerosol Production Line

		Water-Based Aerosol Insecticide Formulation

		The Biological Efficacy of Typical Formulation

		FE Insecticide Aerosols

		A. Features

		B. Composition and the Physical Feature

		C. Comparison of Efficacy to Insects Between FE and Other Knock Down Agent

		Insecticide Aerosols for Special Uses

	

25.	ECOMARK CRITERIA FOR SOAPS & 

DETERGENTS			

		A. Toilet Soaps

		1. General Requirements

		2. Product Specific Requirements

		B. Detergents

		1. General Requirements

		2. Product Specific Requirements

		3. General Requirements

	

26.	PLANT LAYOUT			

	

27.	PROCESS FLOW CHART AND DIAGRAM			

	

28.	RAW MATERIAL SUPPLIERS LIST			

	

29.	PHOTOGRAPHS OF MACHINERY WITH SUPPLIER’S CONTACT DETAILS	378

		Liquid Soap Making Machine

		Three Roll Mill

		Blender

		Heat Exchanger

		Plodder

		Centrifuge

		Flash Tank

		Water Strainer

		Cyclone Separator

		Vaccum Pump

		Hammer Mill

		Jacketed Kettle

		Condenser

		Storage Tank

		Steam Heater

		Agitator

		Soap Packing Machine

		Transfer Pump

		Hopper

		Spray Dryer

		Pulverizer Machine

		Washing Powder Making Machinery

		Bath Soap Making Machine

		Soaps Wrapping Machine

		Detergent Cake Making MAchine

		Manual Soap Cutter

		Soap Extruders

		Soap Mixer

		Soap Presses

		Soap Crutcher

		Soap Flaker

		Detergent Making Machine

		Hand Wash Liquid Soap Making Machine

		Ribbon Blender

		Cage Mill

		Automatic Production Line for High Laundry Detergent Filling and Capping

		Soap Finishing Line

		Canned Fresh Air Filling Machine Assembly Line 2800E

		Air Filling Machine 1600D1

		Aerosol Filling Machines Automatic Single Platform 2800A

		Aerosol Filling Machines

		Aerosol Contract Filling Machine

		Aerosol Filling Plant

		Aerosol Filling Equipment With 5 in 1 Function 1600C

		Toilet Soap Line

		Laundry Soap Making Process Chart

		Soap Production Line Machine

		Soap Production Line Plant

		Soap Making Line Machinery Soap Production Line

Sample Chapters

INTRODUCTION

Soaps are cleaning agents that are usually made by

reacting alkali (e.g., sodium hydroxide) with naturally

occurring fat or fatty acids. The reaction produces sodium

salts of these fatty acids, which improve the cleaning process

by making water better able to lift away greasy stains from

skin, hair, clothes, and just about anything else. As a

substance that has helped clean bodies as well as

possessions, soap has been remarkably useful.

The basic structure of all soaps is essentially the same,

consisting of a long hydrophobic (water-fearing) hydrocarbon

“tail” and a hydrophilic (waterloving) anionic “head”: The

length of the hydrocarbon chain (“n”) varies with the type of

fat or oil but is usually quite long. The anionic charge on the

carboxylate head is usually balanced by either a positively

charged potassium (K + ) or sodium (Na + ) cation. In making

soap, triglycerides in fat or oils are heated in the presence of

a strong alkali base such as sodium hydroxide, producing

three molecules of soap for every molecule of glycerol. This

process is called saponification.

A soap is a salt of a compound known as a fatty acid. A

soap molecule consists of a long hydrocarbon chain

(composed of carbons and hydrogens) with a carboxylic acid

group on one end which is ionic bonded to a metal ion, usually

a sodium or potassium. The hydrocarbon end is nonpolar and

is soluble in nonpolar substances (such as fats and oils), and

the ionic end (the salt of a carboxylic acid) is soluble in water.

Soap is one of the oldest chemical produced over two

thousand years ago by saponification animal fats with the

ashes from plants. Although soap are mainly used as

surfactant for washing, bathing cleaning, but they are also

being used in textile spinning and as important constituent

of lubricating grease. Now soap and detergent have become

integral part of our society. There has been continuous

development Soap making technology starting with batch

kettle making process in cottage industry and to present

continuous modern soap making process using either fat

saponification or by fatty acid neutralization utilizing a wide

variety of natural and synthetic feed. Soaps are also key

components of most lubricating grease which are usually

emulsion of, calcium, sodium, lithium soaps and mineral

oil.

With detergents spreading in usage, it is imperative that

we understand what they are and how they affect our

environment. Detergents are household chemical cleaning

compounds used for laundering and dishwashing. They

contain wetting agents and emulsifiers based on non-soap

synthetic surfactants. Synthetic detergent powders are made

up of surface-active agents, builders and fillers. In addition,

they contain additives such as anti re-deposition agents,

optical fibre brighteners (whitening agents), bluing agents,

bleaching agents, foam regulators, organic sequestering

agents, enzymes, perfumers, and substances that regulate

density and assure the crispness of the material they are used

on.

A disinfectant is a chemical agent, which destroys or

inhibits growth of pathogenic microorganisms in the nonsporing

or vegetative state. Disinfectants do not necessarily

kill all organisms but reduce them to a level, which does not

harm health or the quality perishable goods. Disinfectants

are applied to inanimate objects and materials such as

instruments and surfaces to control and prevent infection.

They may also be used to disinfect skin and other tissues prior

to surgery (see also Antiseptics, above). Disinfection means

the freeing of an article from some or all of its burden of live

pathogenic microorganisms which might cause infection

during its use. The term is a relative one and disinfection may

be described as being partially or highly effective according

to the proportion of pathogenic organisms killed or removed.

Disinfection needs to be used rather than sterilization.

The market is witnessing globalization in the sector, as

more and more global vendors are branching out in the

market to increase their market share. With rising

globalization, vendors of the market are facing new challenges

to sustain their growth and compliant as per the laws and

regulations directed by various government agencies. The

potential opportunities in the developing economies are

expected to provide ample of demand for the product over the

forecast period.

 

LIQUID SOAP AND DETERGENTS

When soap is mentioned, the cake or bar form usually

comes to mind. However, it has definite basic

disadvantages for use in public or semi-public wash rooms.

For one thing, it does not “stayput”. A piece of cake soap

on a public wash basin will disappear with alarming a

clarity. Even if the cake is not stolen, it has the habit of

slipping to the floor or soaking away in the basin or else

degenerating into soggy, slimy, dirty and Uniointing looking

slivers.

To obviate the shortcomings of cake or bar soap, liquid

soaps are utilized. Liquid soaps are most popular for normal

use of soap in public wash rooms. These are used widely in

public buildings, schools, hotels and institutions. Besides

providing better rinsing than cake or powdered soaps, liquid

soap is more economical. It is manufactured in large batches

and sold in bulk, and does not have to go through crutching,

drying, milling, grinding, wrapping, packing etc. all of which

cost money.

The main different between liquid soap and hard soap is

that the former is saponified with caustic potash and the

latter with caustic soda. When suitable oils are used, caustic

potash produces a soap that will give a rich lather in low

concentrations.     

LIQUID DETERGENTS

For small manufacturers, the best advice on making

liquid detergents is to purchase from primary producers an

intermediate dodecyl benzene sulphuric acid (DDBSA) better

known as Acid Slurry. They, themselves, can neutralize the

dodecyl compound in a variety of ways. They may use

ammonia amines, soda, or potash to yield liquid detergents.

ANTISEPTIC AND GERMICIDAL LIQUID SOAP

In this class those may be included which are marketed

under designations such as: Surgical Liquid soap, Hospital

Liquid Soap, Medicated Liquid Soap and those under trade

names utilizing a descriptive word which intimates germ

killing properties.

It is common knowledge that soap removes some surface

germs from the skin due to its mechanical action of washing.

When used correctly for cleaning the hands or for washing

eating utensils, soaps are undoubtedly potent factors in

preventing the spread of diseases due to certain organisms.

The action of soaps as germicides is however limited.

Coconut oil soaps, on account of their high laurate

content are more strongly germicidal than other soaps. It

would appear that although by a liberal interpretation, the

word “Antiseptic” is sometimes applied to soap, the fact

remains that ordinary soap has no effect against the pus or

staphylococus germ, which is the most commonly found on

the skin.

 

HEXACHLOROPHENE SOAPS

The need for soap with effective antiseptic action is

fulfilled by a relatively new compound known commonly as

hexachlorophene. Recent medical literature contains

numerous published studies which demonstrate the

bactericidal and antiseptic action of this compound in

combination with soaps. The compound may be used in either

bar, powdered, or liquid products. Bar soaps incorporating

two percent hexachlorophene are usually designed for general

toilet use, and if used regularly, will reduce and maintain the

bacterial flora of the skin to about five percent of the usual

number. A liquid soap containing hexacholorophene produces

better results than a bar soap incorporating the compound.

Chemically, hexachlorophene is defined as bis (3, 5, 6 –

trichloro —2 —hydroxyphenyl) methane. It is a white

crystalline powder, insoluble in water soluble in acetone,

alcohol and dilute alkalies has a melting point of 164-180°C,

and exhibits antiseptic and germicidal, action against microorganisms.

It is prepared by the condensation of two

molecules of 2, 4, 5 trichlorophenol with one molecule of

formaldehyde in the presence of concentrated sulphuric acid.

 

Control of Clarity

Coconut oil is considered the best for making clear liquid

soap. However after saponification, the higher titre fractions,

such as stearates, and palmitates precipitate out of solution,

and cause a turbidity which is encouraged further by low

temperatures. The oil also contains unsaponifiables, which

cause clouding.

Commercial caustic potash contains a small amount of

soda impurities which form soda soaps, such as Sodium

Stearate, palmitate, or lamatic. These are less soluble than

the potash soaps and therefore, precipitate out of solution.

Chemically pure caustic potash is preferred, but its cost

makes it commercially uneconomical.

Allowing liquid soap to remain in a storage tank permits

a certain percentage of clouding ingredients to settle out. Cold

hastens the precipitation. However, if the liquid soap is too

neutral or super fatted, cloudiness will be excessive in cold

weather, clear up as the temperature rises, and reappear

when it drops.

 

Bottling and Packaging

After the soap passes through the filter press, it is stored

in tanks and later transported to the bottles. For this purpose

steel drums makes the best packing, as they do not affect

clarity where soap is packed in bottles, it may in some cases

develop turbidity even if the soap has been manufactured

correctly and treated as described. This may be due to the

quality or a glassware Bottle manufacturers use different

formulations and it has been found that some glass acts

unfavourably by slowly liberating an excess of lime and

magnesia salts used in making the glassware, thereby

forming insoluble soaps which cause clouding. The best may

to ascertain which bottles are suitable is to put liquid soap

into different make bottles and observe the effect on clarity.

 

HANDMADE SOAP

Soap is integral to our society today, and we find it hard

to imagine a time when people were kept sweet-smelling

by the action of perfume rather than soap. However, the

current widespread use of soap is only a very recent

occurrence, despite the fact that it has been made for more

than 2500 years. The first recorded manufacture of soap was

in 600 BC, when Pliny the Elder described its manufacture

by the Phonecians from goats tallow and ash, and it was

known among the British Celts and throughout the Roman

Empire. However, these people used their soap medicinally,

and it was not until the second century AD that it was used

for cleaning, and not until the nineteenth century that it

began to be commonly used in the Western world.

Handmade soaps are manufactured locally in small

batches with the personal oversight and care of the soap

maker. Handmade soap makers use high-quality ingredients

and are able to add specialty oils and additives to personalize

their formulations. Also known as “homemade soap” or

“handcrafted soap”, handcrafted soap is a blend of both

science and art. By combining the scientific knowledge of the

last 150 years and the artistic creativity of the soap maker,

each bar is safe, luxurious and unique. Handcrafted soap is

soap in its true and most pure form. Handcrafted soap can

be made from scratch by the cold or hot process methods or

by utilizing a pre-made soap base. The Handcrafted Soap

makers Guild recognizes any soap made by these methods

to be handcrafted so long as at least 50% of the process is

done by hand.

 True soaps are the result of a chemical reaction between

vegetable or animal fats, water and lye. When combined, they

transform into soap and glycerin with no lye remaining in

the soap. This reaction is called “saponification”, which

literally means “the making of soap”. Handcrafted soap

makers generally pride themselves on the unique recipes that

create their signature soaps. Most handcrafted soap makers

use food-quality, natural ingredients, starting with a variety

of vegetable oils such as olive, coconut, or palm, or they may

use purified tallow or lard. To these might be added

specialized oils, nut butters or seed extracts to bring the

desired qualities to the finished bar.

Fragrance oils or plant-based essential oils are added for

scent. For color or texture, soap makers often use cosmeticgrade

pigments or dyes, botanicals, herbs, spices or other

natural ingredients. For those with sensitivities, many soap

makers also make “simple soap” with no additives or scent.

Besides all the wonderful ingredients that may be in

handcrafted soap, perhaps the biggest advantage of

handcrafted soap is in the soap makers themselves, each of

whom invests their care and attention to detail into every

batch and bar. When you use a bar of handcrafted soap, you

know it was made with the personal touch of a local soap

maker.

 

PROPERTIES

Handmade soaps are made with natural ingredients

instead of cheap imitations which may cause irritation.

Coconut, olive, and palm oils are carefully blended to create

a skin smoothing concoction that cleanses the skin without

drying it out. A variety of natural fragrance oils can also be

added to the handmade soap for additional moisture locking

effects. An example of the types of fragrance oils used include:

orange, vanilla rose petals, almond, avocado, jojoba,

cottonseed, etc. Most importantly, handmade soaps are

respectful of nature by not testing their products on animals.

 

TYPES OF HANDMADE SOAP

While the chemical reaction that creates soap is always

the same, different types of soaps can be made by different

methods, all still relying upon that basic chemical reaction

that occurs.

Cold Process Soap

Cold process soap making is the method most often used

by soap makers who make soap from scratch. It’s called “cold”

process because no additional heat is added during the soap

making process; however the process itself does generate

heat. Often cold process soaps are insulated in the mould

until they are completely cooled.

Soaps produced via the cold process method are opaque

and usually have a creamy feel to the bar. Without any

additives that change the color, the soap ranges from whitewhite

to creamy-tan, depending on the oils that are used in

making the soap. The feel of the lather varies, also dependent

upon the oils used to make the soap. The lather can range

from tiny, very slippery, long-lasting bubbles (as with pure

olive oil soap), to big, fluffy, short-lived bubbles (as with pure

coconut oil soap).

 

BASIC INGREDIENTS IN HANDMADE SOAP

Understanding the materials that go into handmade soap

can help a soap maker predict how materials and additives

will affect the final outcome of a batch of soap. Using the right

materials, a soap maker can adjust a soap to ensure it has

the desired texture, color, scent and chemical properties.

Preparing soap with the proper handmade soap materials and

tools can help produce a quality batch of soap while allowing

the soap maker to stay safe during the soap making process.

• Oil: Almost oil can be made to be soap. Just looking for

easy materials such as: Coconut Oil, Palm Oil, Olive Oil,

Corn Oil and Soybean Oil etc.

• Sodium/Potassium Hydroxide is used to change oil to

soap.

• Water: It is used as a catalyst/solvent. Choose distilled

or bottled water. Plumbing water is not good because

containing of many minerals.

 

DETERGENT SOAP

A detergent is a formulated product which is specially

designed to promote the cleaning action. Each individual

component in the formulation has its own specific functions

in the washing process but it can also produce synergistic

effect with other components.

The term detergent originated from the latin word

detergine (i.e. wipe off), is now-a-days applied to all synthetic

washing compounds. Soaps, detergents, cleaning fluids and

many emergency stain removers are effective cleaners

because they can dissolve and emulsify (break up and

suspend) the oil and grease that holds dirt in place. Synthetic

detergent is an effective substitute of washing soap have

become now very popular replacing the soap. All soaps and

detergents contain a surfactant as their active ingredient.

However detergent has better cleaning properties than soap

because good detergency and has increasingly popular.

Detergent cake largely used in the domestic houses,

commercial sectors, hotel industries, garment industries and

in many other sections of the society. There is much more

utilization of enzymes, by using enzyme activity of detergent

cake and bar increases. But enzymatic process of detergent

manufacturing is not economically viable to produce low

priced detergent. Formulation of cake is different from that

of cake in powder form. To give grit to the cake and firmness

of solids, clay and starch-like fillers are added and sodium

sulphate content is reduced. The production of detergent bar

Detergent

 

PROPERTIES

Detergent Cake

1. It should be handy enough and it should not be melted

at room temperature.

2. It should not be corrosive in hand.

3. It should have good appearance.

4. It should not loss its property within one year.

5. It should be soluble in water and solution is slightly

alkaline.

6. It should produce good foam in the water and it should

clean the garments and other articles.

 

USES & APPLICATIONS

8. These are used in the domestic houses and in the

industrial for cleaning of clothes, garments etc.

9. Hand Soaps and Shampoo.

10. Cleaning and degreasing of metals.

11. Cleaning of glass and containers.

12. Cleaning of painted surfaces.

13. Cleaning of painted walls, roofs etc.

14. Household washing.

15. Washing and cleaning of clothes, fabrics etc.

16. Industrial equipment cleanings etc.

 

The most easily produced type of solvent-detergent is a

combination of non-ionic detergent with solvents. Very often

a simple mixing of solvents with detergents is sufficient to

obtain a clear, stable product, which generally forms milky

emulsions in water. However, not all non-ionics are soluble

in any proportion in any solvent. Very often they are only

slightly soluble in non-polar solvents of the aliphatic type.

Here it is necessary to use so-called ‘co-solvents’, together

with the non-polar aliphatic solvent, to give the desired

results.

The subject of solvency is of the greatest importance in

working out effective products. By giving concrete examples,

it will be made clear how important this type of solvent is in

formulating high-grade products.

Carpet and Upholstery Cleaners

Fabric cleaners of this type differ in their operation from

other detergent materials in that it is usually very difficult

to rinse the material being cleaned. To overcome this,

methods of cleaning have been developed where a solution

of the detergent is applied to the carpet by ‘shampooing’ to

form copious foam, or a foam is formed first and the carpet

sponged with this foam,. In either instance the combination

of the detergency of the cleaner and the mechanical energy

applied lifts and holds the dirt in the foam.

The foam, having very thin walls and enormous surface

area dries relatively quickly into brittle particles of dust and

this dust is either vacuum cleaned or brushed away.

Initial formulations for these carpet shampoos were

normal light-duty detergents with the addition of tetrasodium

pyrophosphate, its function being both to increase detergency

and to make the dried residue more brittle. A suitable

detergent material which is also in itself fairly brittle when

dehydrated is the sodium or magnesium salt, or one of the

fatty alcohol sulphates. Some formulae also called for the

incorporation of a solvent but with the newer fabrics and

rubberized bases being used, the solvent should be chosen

with care of left out.

These formulation were not, however, the complete

answer to the problem. A portion of the active matter became

absorbed into the fibre and when dried this left a deposit

which tended to attract dirt. Carpets cleaned in this manner

became soiled very quickly.

 

DETERGENTS OF VARIOUS TYPES

DETERGENT POWDER

Here are below mentioned some of the formulae for

preparation of detergent powders for different purposes.

The methods of preparation and compounding of the

constituents with their merits and demerits have already been

discussed in the preceeding chapters. The same method is

applied in the preparation of these. The main technique being

either mixing up of the constituents in powdered from in

mixers and then sifting and sieving the product to get powder

of uniform gravity, or preparing an acid slurry and converting

it into powder from by spray drying as already mentioned.

However, the brief notes, if any, follow the formulation.

METAL CLEANERS

The cleaning of metals is necessary for removal of rust,

other corrosion products, dissolving scale, grease, oil paint,

foreign matter and preliminary treatment for acid treatment.

For removal of rust, corrosion products, and dissolution of

the scale 'acid treatment' is conducted while the other

purposes alkaline treatment suffices. The preliminary

treatment of metals with alkaline substances prior to acid

treatment is sometimes necessitated to avoid uneven finish

due to action of the acid on the metallic surfaces. Metals are

sometimes treated with strongly alkaline solutions to remove

grease oil and foreign matter prior to plating, enamelling and

other protective treatments employed now-a-days. As the

metals are affected differently by these treatments, therefore,

here are given some of the formulations for metal cleaners.

 

LIQUID DETERGENTS

Liquid detergents are gaining mometum in the market in

the market and are, by and by replacing the powder

detergents. These are generally used for washing costly

clothes. Liquid hand cleaners, shampooes, liquid dish and

hardware cleaners occupy a major portion of the shelves of

the modern general stores in the big cities and metropolies.

Some of the trade names of such products are 'Genteel' and

'Homacole' etc. Liquid detergents are used for fine wash of

silk and synthetic fabrics at h ome and used in commercial

quantities in textile mills for wet processing of textile goods.

Due to greater foam volume and stability, liquid

detergents form an emulsion with the greasy foods which form

a thin film of the oily matter which is easily removed by

rinsing it with water.

A liquid detergent formulation generally comprises of a

basic anionic alkyl aryl surface active agent and a non-ionic

additive. The additive arrests the foaming power so that the

foam is completely exhausted with the end point of its

detergency. While making choice for the formulations it must

be ensured that the product obtained is biodegradable, a term

which has already been explained in detail.

The additives are rapidly dispersed into liquids at a

temperature of about 120F, therefore, these are incorporated

into liquid detergents very easily at this temperature. It is

better to take the required quantity of water at 500C and

added the required quantity of the non-ionic additive with

stirring so that the complete dissolution is achieved resulting

in a homogenous solution.

It is economical for the formulators of liquid detergents

to buy the active detergent material like dodecyl benzene

sulphonic acid or lined alkyl sulphonic acids from their

manufacturer rather manufacturing it themselves, which is

very cumbersome and technically unsound for ordinary

formulators.

Taking the pros and cons of different materials, here are

some of the formulations for liquid detergents to achieve the

maximum output and the best results. To achieve the best

results a good liquid detergent must contain alkali,

sequestering agent and the soil-suspending agent. Instead

the variation in percentage composition of different

constituents of the formulas do affect the detergency of the

product. Some of the formulations are:

 

DETERGENT (NIRMA TYPE)

This detergent occupied large place of detergent powder

in the market. Widely used in India in the homes for washing

of clothes. In the technical aspect its manufacture process

is the same but ingredients used are particular for it.

In a small, cottage scale production there is no need of

heavy machineries. Detergent is manufactured by the simple

mixing of all the ingredients with the active orgainc

component i.e. Sodium dodecyl benzene sulphonate (Sodium

salt of acid slurry). In a big unit the process starts with the

sulphonation of dodecyl benzene and hence the process and

technology are complicated.

The required quanity of sodium dodecyl benzene

sulphonate and sodium LABS (Linear aryl benzene

sulphonate) mixture are taken in a simple mixer with agitator

(i.e. Ribbon Blender). Then required quantity of sodium

tripolyphosphate, trisodium phosphate, soda ash and CMC

are introduced into the mixer. During the addition of the

ingredients,. blending of the mass is accomplished by

continuous agitation. Then other ingredients except optical

whitener and colour are added and mixing is continued. At

last colour and optical whitener and small amount of water

are added. Addition of water is to ease homogenity.

 

PHENYL

Phenyl type disinfectants fall in the category of black oil

disinfectants and are extensively used for sanitation

purposes, for drains, floor, stables etc. and are prepared from

coal tar distillates containing high boiling tar acids. These

are, however, less, affected in contact with organic matter.

Phenyl is being used since very beginning for killing insects

grown in nallahas, lavatory and kooradan. Most of the

diseases causes due to insects.

Phenyl is a strong germicide for disinfecting areas

covering places like hospital, nursing homes, drains, lavatory,

toilets, cowsheds and is extensively used for sanitation

purpose. White phenyl compound is a disinfectant fluid of

milky color, often used to fight bad odors, repell mosquito‘s,

flies, insects and used for floor cleaning and fragrance, it has

demand everywhere, it is produced from a compound called

white phenyle concentrate, which is diluted to 20 to 40 parts

of water to produce white phenyle fluid, its packed in bottles

and cans and sold in market. Its use is almost everywhere

so its demand is growing day by day.

The demand for phenyl is rapidly increasing due to the

propagation and awareness regarding importance of hygiene.

 

USES

White phenyl (phenyle) is most suitable to fight dirt and

germs in the house including kitchen appliances, carpets and

other items.

It is basically an agent, which destroys pathogenic

organism, and hence its uses are numerous. It is extensively

used in for sanitation purposes for drains, floors, stables, etc.

As these are slightly soluble in water, have to be emulsified

for use as disinfections.

White phenyl is finding wide spread use and acceptance

as hard surface cleaner to remove greasy, fatty and oily soils

or various non-porous hard surfaces like floors, bathrooms

marbles, ceramics, metals, plastics, concrete, granite, walls,

cabinet, appliances etc. White phenyl assist in the removal

of dirt and grim and leave all surfaces and atmosphere

pleasantly smelling.

It is being popular day by day in India in homes, hospitals,

clinics, veterinary clinics, restaurants, factories, food

establishments, offices, shops, schools, institutions,

government departments etc. for disinfecting purposes.

White Phenyl has effective composition to kill microbes

coming into contact with it and a fresh fragrance. The White

Phenyl is a great alternative for ensuring a fresh and diseasefree

environment. The reason for White Phenyl to be widely

preferred is its effectiveness to keep the surroundings

hygienic for long.

 

FLOOR CLEANER

 

Cleaners are typically water-based, with acidic, alkaline,

or neutral washing agents added to them. The primary

use of an acidic agent is to eliminate inorganic deposits, like

lime scale. Alkaline agents serve to remove deposits that are

formed of grease, fat, protein, or oil. Neutral agents are so

named due to their neutral pH-level. Their purpose is to dispel

different forms of dirt.

Floor Cleaning is the process of removing visible debris

and dust particles too small to be seen by the naked eye.

Removal of lead-based paint hazards in a dwelling unit will

not make the unit safe unless excessive levels of leaded dust

are also removed. This is true regardless of whether the dust

was present before or generated by the lead hazard control

process itself. However, cleaning and clearance can be

achieved routinely if care and diligence are exercised.

Just as there are different types of bases for cleaners,

there are also different jobs for household cleaners. Allpurpose

cleaners can generally be used on any surface to

clean any kind of deposit.

Floor Cleaner that effortlessly removes oils, Floor Cleaner

is highly effective, versatile aqueous cleaner and degreaser.

The powerful cleaning action easily removes oils and heavy

soiling from most flooring surfaces.

 

USES OF FLOOR CLEANER

• for the cleaning of industrial surfaces, shop floors and

workshop floors, production sites and warehouses

• can be used manually and mechanically in pressure

washers, floor cleaning machines, etc.

• by heating to a maximum of 90 °C cleaning performance

can be increased many times over.

 

NAPHTHALENE BALLS

Naphthalene C10H8, sometimes called ‘TARCAMPHOR’ is

a colourless crystalline-flaked solid with the familiar

odour of mothballs. Naphthalene C10H8 is an aromatic

hydrocarbon with two condensed ring aromatic compounds.

Naphthalene is a white solid chemical that vaporizes

easily. It has a strong smell. You can sometimes smell

naphthalene in the air or in water. Naphthalene is used in

mothballs and moth flakes. Petroleum and coal contain

naphthalene.

Mothballs and other products containing naphthalene are

solids that turn into toxic gas. The toxic gas kills insects and

may repel animals.

A good commercial grade of naphthalene (called 78°

Naphthalene, referring to the melting point) is approximately

96% pure. Refined naphthalene is available in flakes, pellets,

and balls. Use of Naphthalene as an insect repellent has

dwindled in recent years as other materials, e.g. pdichlorobenzene,

have displaced it.

It is a consumable product, hence it finds extensive

application in cities. General awareness is improving in

cleanliness and hence this product has got good scope for

growth.

 

dyestuff industry and the manufacture of phthalic anhydride

for synthetic resins. It is also used in the manufacture of

lampblack, as an addition to enrich the illuminating gas and

motor fuels, and as an insecticides and soil fumigant.

It is used as intermediate for the manufacture of phthalic

anhydride teralin, declin, chlorinated naphthalenes and dyes.

It is most widely used as moth repellant and fungicides in

homes.

Other important applications are as explosives, cutting

fluids lubricants, preservatives. It is sometimes used as a

solvent for certain chemicals. Its minor uses are as textile

chemicals, emulsions breakers.

Naphthalene balls are used as moth repellent and

fungicide in homes to prevent the woolen clothes. Due to the

volatile character of naphthalene, balls are vaporizes and

require some additives wherever these are used. These are

also used in urinals and toilets to prevent the bad smell.

 

PROPERTIES

Hot pressed Naphthalene, relatively free of oils, has a

melting 168.8 to 172.4ºF. It should be noted, however, that

these temperatures are somewhat lower than given for the

pure naphthalene. As the oil content increases, the melting

point drops accordingly.

Crude naphthalene is generally produced by the fractional

distillation of coal tar. It exists in various forms depending

upon the amount of oil present. It is also formed in certain

processes for making fuel gases where it causes trouble in

gas distribution systems by depositing in small lines and

accessions.

Naphthalene is known to domestic users as mothballs.

It is also used in the manufacture of dyes, phthalic acid,

explosives, lamp black, varnishes, in grease for greasing

vehicles, as an antiseptic, in the fun industry. Hydrogenated

naphthalene is also used in making tetralin & decalin, which

have been used as solvents & motor fuels. Naphthalene is

also used in a under variety of chemical compounds.