NIIR

Contents

1. Characterization of Medical Waste
1. INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW
2. MEDICAL WASTE GENERATION
Methodology
Summary of Preliminary Results
3. MEDICAL WASTE DATA COLLECTION ACTIVITIES
Transporter Notification
Results
Transporter Periodic Reports
On-Site Incinerators
2. Medical Waste Treatment Effectiveness
1. INCINERATION
Factors Affecting Effectiveness
Medical Waste Treatment Effectiveness  
Quality Assurance and Quality Control Procedures
Maintenance and Operator Training
2. STEAM STERILIZATION
Factors Affecting Effectiveness
Quality Assurance and Quality Control Procedures
Maintenance and Operator Training
3. GAS STERILIZATION
Factors Affecting Effectiveness
Quality Assurance and Quality Control Procedures
Maintenance and Operator Training
4. CHEMICAL DISINFECTION
Factors Affecting Effectiveness
Quality assurance and Quality Control Procedures
Maintenance and Operator Training
5.   THERMAL INACTIVATION
Factors Affecting Effectiveness
Quality Assurance and Quality Control Procedures
6.   IRRADIATION
Factors Affecting Effectiveness
Quality Assurance and Quality Control Procedures
Maintenance and Operator Training
7. MICROWAVE TREATMENT
Factors Impacting Effectiveness
Quality Assurance and Quality Control Procedures
Maintenance and Operator Training
8.   GRINDING AND SHREDDING
Factors Affecting Effectiveness
Quality Assurance and Quality Control Procedures
Maintenance and Operator Training
9.   COMPACTION
Factors Affecting Effectiveness
Quality Assurance and Quality Control Procedures
Maintenance and Operator Training
3. Medical Waste Handling Methods
1.   INTRODUCTION
2. CURRENT PRACTICES
Handling and packaging practices
For Off-Site Incineration
Medical Waste Handling Materials  
For Landfill Disposal
For On-site Treatment or Disposal
For Sewer and Ocean Disposal
3.   STANDARDS IMPLEMENTED BY THE RULE
Segregation
Packaging
Labeling
Marking
Storage
Transport
4.   EVOLVING HANDLING AND MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES 19
Handling
Compaction
5.   METHODS TO EVALUATE MEDICAL WASTE HANDLING
4. Medical Waste Reuse, Recycling and Reduction
1. RECYCLING AND REUSE
2. SOURCE REDUCTION
3. GENERATION RATES
4. AGENCY ACTION
5. Infectious Waste Characterization
1. DEFINITION OF INFECTIOUS WASTE
2. TYPES OF INFECTIOUS WASTE
1. Isolation Wastes
2. Cultures and Stocks of Infectious Agents and Associated Biologicals
3. Human Blood and Blood Products
4. Pathological Wastes
5. Contaminated Sharps
6. Contaminated Animal Carcasses, Body Parts, and Bedding
3. MISCELLANEOUS CON TAMINATED WASTES - (OPTIONAL CATEGORY)
6. Infectious Waste Management
1. INTRODUCTION
2. SELECTION OF WASTE MANAGEMENT OPTIONS
3. INFECTIOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN
1. Designation of Infectious Waste
2. Segregation of Infectious Waste
3. Packaging of Infectious Waste
4. Storage of Infectious Waste
5. Transport of Infectious Waste (on- and off-site)
6. Treatment of Infectious Waste
7. Disposal of Treated Wastes
8. Contingency Planning
9. Staff Training
7. Treatment of Infectious Waste
1. INTRODUCTION
1. Monitoring
2. Steam Sterilization
3. Incineration
4. Thermal inactivation
5. Gas/Vapour Sterilization
6. Chemical Disinfection
7. Sterilization by Irradiation
8. Other Treatment Methods
8. Medical Waste
1.   CYTOTOXIC CHEMICALS
2.   HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS
3. PATHOGENS
4. TOXIC METALS
5. RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS
9. Hospital Incineration Systems
1.   INTRODUCTION
2.   FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS RELATED TO HOSPITAL WASTE INCINERATION
1. Chemical Reactions
2. Stoichiometric Combustion Air
3. Thermochemical Relations
4. Volumetric Gas Flows
5. The Combustion Process
3. HOSPITAL WASTE CHARACTERISTICS
4.   TYPES OF HOSPITAL WASTE INCINERATOR SYSTEMS
1. Introduction
2. Multiple-chamber incinerators
1. Principle of Combustion and AirDistribution
2. Mode of Operation
3. Waste Feed Charging Systems
4. Ash Removal Systems
5. Use of Multiple-Chamber lncinerators for Incinerating Hospital Wastes
3. Controlled-Air Incinerators
1. Principle of Controlled Air Incineration
2. Batch/Controlled-Air incinerators
3. Intermittent-Duty, Controlled Air Incinerators
4. Continuous-Duty, Controlled Air incinerators
4. Rotary Kilns
1. Principle of Operation
2. Mode of Operation
3. Charging System
4. Ash Removal
5. Auxilliary Equipment
1. Waste Meat Boilers
2. Auxiliary Waste Liquid Infection
10. Bio-Medical Waste
1. INTRODUCTION
1.   Linkage of Bio-medical Waste Management with Municipal Waste Management
2. ASSESSMENT OF CURRENT SITUATION
1. Waste Generation
(i) Health Care Establishments
(ii). Whole Town/City
2. Current Practices
3.   Allocation of Responsibilities
3. BASIC ISSUES
1.   Management Issues of Bio-medical Waste Management
2. Current Issues in Management of Health Care Waste
4.   LEGAL ASPECTS AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERN
1. Bio-medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998
Scope and application of the Rules
Environmental Concern
5.   WASTE IDENTIFICATION AND WASTE CONTROL PROGRAM FOR THE HEALTH CARE ESTABLISHMENTS
1. Identification of Various Components of the Waste Generated
2. An Exercise in Waste Control Programme
6. WASTE STORAGE
1. Recommended Labelling and Colour Coding
2. Segregated Storage in Separate Containers (at the Point of Generation)
3. Certification
4.   COMMON/INTERMEDIATE STORAGE AREA
5. Parking Lot for Collection Vehicles
7.   HANDLING AND TRANSPORTATION
1. Collection of Waste Inside the Hospital/Health Care Establishment
2. Transportation of Segregated Waste Inside the Premises
3. Collection and Transportation of Waste for Small Units
4. Transportation of Waste Outside
8.   WASTE TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL : THE RULES AND THE AVAILABLE OPTIONS
Transportation of Waste Outside
1. Incineration
2. Autoclave Treatment
3. Hydroclave Treatment
4. Microwave Treatment
5. Chemical Disinfection
6. Sanitary and Secured Landfilling
7. General Waste
9.   COMMON TREATMENT/DISPOSAL FACILITY
1.   Establishment of the Facility
2.   Tie Up of Health Care Set Ups
3. Private Sector Participation
10.   OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
11. OCCUPATIONAL HAZARDS AND SAFETY MEASURES
1. Occupational Hazards
2. Safety Measures for the Medical and Para-medical Staff
3. Safety Measures for Cleaning and Transportation Staff
12. FINANCIAL ASPECTS
13. TRAINING AND MOTIVATION
1. Training Modules for Different Levels of Staff
(i)   Medical and laboratory personnel:
(ii) Para-medical personnel:
(iii) Sweepers, cleaning staff, guards etc.:
(iv) Administrative and management staff:
2. Incentives and Motivation
3. Awareness Generation
14.   PLANNING ELEMENTS
1. Planning Inside the Health Care Establishment Premises
2. Planning Outside the Health Care Establishment
3. Relation to Overall Town Planning
4. Examples
15.   MANAGEMENT ASPECTS
1. Organisational Set Up 104
2. Administration and Managerial Aspects 105
16.   ANIMAL WASTE 105
11. Air Pollution Control
1. INTRODUCTION 108
2.   POLLUTANT FORMATION AND GENERATION 108
3.   CONTROL STRATEGIES 109
1. Controlling Feed Material
2. Combustion Control 111
3. Add-On Air Pollution Control Systems
1. Wet Scrubbers
2. Fabric Filters
3. Dry Scrubbers
12. Waste Minimization Options
Description of Techniques
Better Operating Practices
Chemotherapy and Antineoplastic Wastes
Formaldehyde Wastes
Instal Reverse Osmosis (RO) Water Supply Equipment
Determine Minimum Effective Cleaning Procedures
Reuse/Recycle Waste Solutions
Proper Waste Management
Photographic Chemical Waste
Store Materials Properly
Recycle Spoiled Photographic Film and Paper
Test Expired Material for Usefulness
Extend Processing Bath Life
Use Squeegees
Use Countercurrent Washing
Recover Silver and Recycle Spent Chemicals
Radionuclides
Solvents
Material Substitution
Improved Laboratory Techniques
Recycle Solvents
Mercury
Electronic Sensing Devices
Proper Spill Clean Up
Recycle/Reuse
Waste Anesthetic Gases
Toxics, Corrosives, and Miscellaneous Chemicals
Ethylene Oxide
Use of Recyclable Drums
Proper Material Handling
Material Substitution
13. Vermiculturing
1. INTRODUCTION
2. INTRODUCTION TO VERMICOMPOSTING
Reduction of particle size
Vermicomposting
Different stages and methods
3. THE INORA PROCESS
The biological means
Selection of biological methods
Bisanitization or accelerated aerobiosis
The biogas plants
The earthworm
4. ASSESSMENT
Environmental assessment
Water
Gases
Pollutants
Aesthetics
Financial assessment
5. QUALITY AND STABILITY FACTORS IN COMPOSTING
Introduction
Appropriate standards
Raw versus composted waste
Identification
5. CONCLUSION
14. Municipal waste water treatment and energy recovery
1. INTRODUCTION
2. THE GANGA ACTION PLAN
3. INDO-DUTCH ENVIRONMENTAL PROJECT
INTEGRATED APPROACH
UASB SYSTEM -A CLEAN TECHNOLOGY
Advantages of UASB over traditional aerobic processes
Technical aspects
Energy recovery from municipal sewage
Technology options for municipal waste water treatment
Case-studies
5 mld UASB treatment plant at Kanpur
Energy savings and biogas generation
Conclusions
Recommendations
14 mld UASB treatment plant at Mirzapur
Energy recovery
Financial aspects
15. Principles of Municipal Solid Waste Management
1. INTRODUCTION
Solid Waste Generation
Environmental Impact of Solid Waste Disposal on Land
Objective of Solid Waste Management
2. PRINCIPLES OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
Waste Reduction
Effective Management of Solid Waste
Functional Elements of Municipal Solid Waste Management
3. HIERARCHY OF WASTE MANAGEMENT OPTIONS
4. WASTE MINIMISATION
5.   RESOURCE RECOVERY THROUGH MATERIAL RECYCLING
Sorting at Source
Centralised Sorting
Sorting Prior to Waste Processing or Landfilling
6. RESOURCE RECOVERY THROUGH WASTE PROCESSING
Biological Processes
Thermal Processes
Other Processes
7. WASTE TRNSFORMATION (WITHOUT RESOURCE RECOVERY) PRIOR TO DI POSAL
Mechanical Transformation
Thermal Transformation
Other Methods
8. DISPOSAL ON LAND
9. COMPONENTS OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
10. LINKAGES BETWEEN MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM AND OTHER TYPES OF WASTES GENERATED IN AN URBAN CENTRE
11. MATERIALS FLOW CHART FOR MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE   MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (1000 t.p.d. WASTE GENERATION
16. Composition and Quantity of Solid Waste
1.   INTRODUCTION
Terminology and Classification
Variations in Composition and Characteristics
2.   DEFINITIONS AND CLASSIFICATION OF SOLID WASTES
Definitions
(i) Domestic/Residential Waste:
(ii) Municipal Waste:
(iii) Commercial Waste:
(iv) Institutional Waste:
(v) Garbage:
(vi) Rubbish:
(vii) Ashes:
(viii) Bulky Wastes:
(ix) Street Sweeping:
(x) Dead Animals:
(xi) Construction and Demolition Wastes:
(xii)   Industrial Wastes:
(xiii) Hazardous Wastes:
(xiv) Sewage Wastes:
Classification
3. COMPOSITION, CHARACTERISTICS AND QUANTITIES
Need for Analysis
Field Investigations
Number of Samples to be Collected
Collection of Samples of Solid Waste
Composition and Characteristics
Characteristics of Municipal Solid Waste in Indian Urban Centres
Per Capita Quantity of Municipal Solid Waste in Indian Urban Centres
Estimation of Future Per Capita Waste Quantity
Relation between Gross National Product (GNP) and Municipal Solid Waste Generation
Rate of Increase liased on Experience in Other Cities
Seasonal Variations
Physical Characteristics
Density
Bulk Density Measurement
1. Material and apparutus:
2. Moisture Content
3. Size of Waste Constituents
4. Calorific Value
Chemical Characteristics
Classification
(i)     Lipids:
(ii)   Carbohydrates:
(iii)   Proteins:
(iv)   Natural Fibres:
(v)   Synthetic Organic Materials (Plastic):
(vi)   Non-combustibles:
4. CONCLUSION
17. Slaughter House Waste and Dead Animals
1. INTRODUCTION
2. MAGNITUDE OF THE PROBLEM
3. CLASSIFICATION
4. OPERATIONS DURING SLAUGHTERING OF ANIMALS
Present Scenario
Slaughtering
Bleeding
Dressing
Evisceration
5.   MEASURES   PROPOSED TO IMPROVE THE   SLAUGHTER HOUSE WASTE MANAGEMENT
Liquid Waste/Effluent
Collection of Blood
Improved Method of Dressing
Evisceration
Safe Disposal of Waste Products
Odours Control
Modernisation of Slaughter House  
Curbing Activities of Illegal Slaughtering of Animals
Provision of Dry Rendering Plants
6. CONCLUSION
18. Industrial Solid Waste
1.   INTRODUCTION
2. THE PROBLEMS
3.   INDUSTRIAL SOLID WASTE
4.   DESCRIPTION OF IMPORTANT INDUSTRIAL SOLID WASTE
Coal Ash
Integrated Iron & Steel Plant Slag
Phosphogypsum
Red Mud
Lime Mud
Waste Sludge and Residues
Potential Reuse of Solid Wastes
5.   WASTE MANAGEMENT APPROACH
Prevention-A Waste Minimisation Approach
Inventory Management and Improved Operations
Waste Management at Source
6.   AREA OF APPLICATION OF SOME IMPORTANT INDUSTRIAL WASTES
7.   CURRENT PRACTICE OF INDUSTRIAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
Collection and Transport of Wastes
Storage & Transportation
Disposal of Industrial Solid Waste
8. HEALTH CONSEQUENCES OF POOR INDUSTRIAL WASTE DISPOSAL
9.   COLLECTION, STORAGE TREATMENT & DISPOSAL   OF WASTES
Waste Segregation
Collection, Storage and Transport
Combined Treatment Facilities
Disposal   Methods
Landfills?
(i) Definitions
Why landfills?
Design:
10. CASE STUDIES
Construction:
Closure & Post Closure:
Incineration
Manifest System
Post Treatment
Back-transport
Monitoring
Record Keeping
11. LEGISLATION FOR MAN AGEMENT OF HAZARDOUS WASTE   AND CATEGORISATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE
11. HANDLING OF HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS
12. INDUSTRIAL LOCATION
13. MANAGEMENT OF INDUSTRIAL SOLID   WASTES CO­ORDINATION (SPCBs & LOCAL BODIES)
19. Emerging Processing Technologies
1. INTRODUCTION
2. VERMICOMPOSTING
3. BIOGAS FROM MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTES
4. CONVERSION OF SOLID WASTES TO PROTEIN
5. ALCOHOL FERMENTATION 259
6. PYROLYSIS
Plasma Arc Technology/Plasma Pyrolysis Vitrification (PPV)
7.   REFUSE DERIVED FUEL
8. HYDROPULPING
9. SLURRY CARB PROCESS
10. TREATMENT FOR RECOVERY OF USEFUL PRODUCTS
11.   SUMMARY
20. Wastewater and Its Collection
1. ECOSYSTEM APPROACH TO POLLUTION CONTROL
Food Chains and Webs
Accumulation of Substances in Food Chains and Webs
Accumulation of Pollutants in Waterbodies
Species Diversity and Ecosystem Stability
Nature of Pollutants
Effects of Pollutants
Control of Pollutants
2. WASTE WATER CHARACTERISTICS
Municipal Wastewater
Industrial Wastewater
Fluctuations In Flow and Composition
3. TYPES OF WASTES AND APPLICABLE RULES
4. PLANNING FOR WASTEWATER COLLECTION
Introduction
Data Requirements and Surveys
On-Site and Off-Site Disposal Systems
Sewer Discharge Standards
Proportion of Industrial and Domestic Wastes
Potential Health Benefits
New Approaches in Sewerage System Design
21. Principles of Reactor Design
1. REACTION ORDER
2. FLOW PATTERNS OF REACTORS
Batch Reactors
Ideal Plug Flow
Ideal Completely Mixed Flow
3. ESTIMATION OF DISPERSION NUMBER, D/UL
Use of Tracer Tests
Use of Empirical Equations
Cells in Series Parallel Arrangements
4. EFFECT OF SHOCK LOADS
5. ESTIMATION OF WASTEWATER TEMPERATURE IN LARGE REACTORS
6.   FACTORS AFFECTING CHOICE OF REACTORS
Nature of the Waste
Process Optimization
Other Factors
22. Principles of Biological Treatment
1. MICROBIAL GROWTH RATES
2. TREATMENT KINETICS
3.   HANDLING OF SOLIDS
4. SLUDGE AGE AND HYDRAULIC RETENTION TIME
5. FOOD/MICROORGANISMS RATIO
6. BUILD UP OF SOLIDS IN SYSTEM
7.   SUBSTRATE REMOVAL EFFICIENCY
8.   TEMPERATURE EFFECTS
9.   ESTIMATION OF FINAL EFFLUENT BOD
10. OXYGEN REQUIREMENTS
For Facultative and Flow-through Units
For Flow-through Systems with Recycling
11. NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS
12. PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL
13. NITROGEN REMOVAL
14. CHOICE OF SLUDGE AGE
23. Mechanically Aerated Lagoons
1.   TYPES OF AERATED LAGOONS
Facultative Aerated Lagoons
Aerobic Flow-through Lagoons
Aerobic Lagoons with Recycling of Solids
2.   DESIGN OF FACULTATIVE AERATED LAGOONS
Substrate Removal Rate
Lagoon Mixing Conditions and Efficiency
Lagoon Depth
Solids in Suspension and Power Level
Oxygenation and Power Level
Anaerobic Activity In Facultative Lagoons
Performance
Sludge Accumulation
3.   DESIGN OF AEROBIC FLOW-THROUGH TYPE LAGOONS
Substrate Removal and Solids Concentration
Detention Time
Solids Concentration
Final Effluent BOD
Oxygen Requirements
Aeration Power and Power Level
4. DESIGN OF DUAL-POWERED AERATED LAGOONS
Design Basis
Retention Time
Performance Power Requirement  
Sludge Accumulation
5. DESIGN OF AEROBIC LAGOONS WITH RECYCLING OF SOLIDS (EXTENDED AERATION LAGOONS)
6. CHOICE OF COMBINATIONS AND LAYOUTS OF UASBs, AERATED LAGOONS AND ALGAL PONDS
7. OPTIMIZATION TRIALS
8. CONSTRUCTION FEATURES
24. Power Generation Based on Distillery Spentwash
INTRODUCTION
THE BIOPAQ TECHNOLOGY
Pre-acidification/buffer tank
Sludge disposal
Biogas handling
CASE-STUDY
NEW DEVELOPMENT
Power generation scheme
CONCLUSION
25. Production, Use, and Disposal of Plastics and Plastic Products
1. SUMMARY OF KEY FINDINGS
2. TECHNOLOGICAL OVERVIEW
Manufacturing Resins
Incorporating Additives
3. PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION STATISTICS
Historical Overview
Domestic Production of Plastics
Import/Export and Domestic Consumption
Economic Profile of the Plastics Industry
Sector Charscteristics
Market Conditions and Prices for Commodity Resins
Charactertics of Major Resin Types
Characteristics of Major Additive Types
4. MAJOR END USE MARKETS FOR PLASTICS
Packaging
Building and Construction
Consumer and Institutional Products
Electrical and Electronics
Furniture and Furnishings
Transportation
Adhesives, Inks, and Coatings
5. DISPOSITION OF PLASTICS INTO THE SOLID WASTE STREAM
Plastics in Municipal Solid Waste
Plastics in Building and Construction Wastes
Plastics in Automobile Salvage Residue
Plastics in Litter
5 Plastics in Marine Debris.
26. Impacts of Post-consumer Plastics Waste on the Management of Municipal Solid waste
SUMMARY OF KEY FINDINGS
Landfilling
Management Issues
Incineration
Management Issues
Environmental Releases
Litter
LANDFILLING
Management Issues
Landfill Capacity
Landfill Integrity
Other Management Issues
Environmental Releases
Leaching of Plastic Polymers
Leaching of Plastics Additives
  INCINERATION
Introduction
Number, Capacity, and Types of Incinerators
Combustion Properties of Plastics
Plastics Combustion and Pollution Control
Incinerator Management Issues
Excessive Flame Temperature
Products of Incomplete Combustion (PICs)
Formation of Slag
Formation of Corrosive Gases
3 Environment Release
Emissions from MSW Incinerators
Plastics Contribution to Incinerator Ash
LITTER  
Background
Analysis of Relative impacts of Plastic and other Litter
27. The Potential for Divertable Plastic Waste
1. SCENARIO DEVELOPMENT
1 Scenario 1
2 Scenario 2
3 Scenario 3
4 Scenario 4
5 Scenario 5
2. ESTIMATED QUANTITIES OF DPW
1. Scenario 1
2.Scenario 2
3. Scenario 3
4. Scenario 4
5. Scenario 5
3. SUMMARY
28. Objectives and Action Items
OBJECTIVES FOR IMPROVING MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
Source Reduction
ACTION ITEMS:
ACTION ITEMS:
OBJECTIVE 1: EVALUATE POTENTIAL FOR MINIMIZING PACKAGING
ACTION ITEMS:
OBJECTIVE 2: EDUCATION   AND   OUTREACH   ON SOURCE REDUCTION
ACTION ITEMS:
RECYCLING
ACTION ITEMS:
Improving Recyclability of the Waste Stream
Collection/Separation
Processing
Marketing
Public Education
Landfilling and Incineration
OBJECTIVE 1: FURTHER EVALUATE ADDITIVES
ACTION ITEM:
OBJECTIVE 2: MONITOR PVC USE
ACTION ITEMS:
OBJECTIVE 3: IMPROVE DISPOSAL OPTIONS
ACTION ITEMS:
OBJECTIVES FOR HANDLING PROBLEMS OUTSIDE THE MSW MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Wastewater Treatment Systems/Combined Sewer overflows/Stormwater Drainage Systems
Wastewater Treatment Systems
ACTION ITEM:
Combined Sewer Overflows
ACTION ITEMS:
Storm water Discharges
ACTION ITEMS:
Other Sources of Marine Debris
Vessels
OBJECTIVE 1: IMPLEMENT ANNEX V OF MARPOL
ACTION ITEMS:
OBJECTIVE 2: REDUCE IMPACT OF FISHING GEAR
ACTION ITEM:
Plastic Manufacturers, Processors, and Transporters
ACTION ITEMS:
Garbage Barges
ACTION ITEM:
Land- and Sea-Originated Litter
OBJECTIVE 1: SUPPORT   LITTER   RETRIEVAL   AND CHARACTERIZATION
ACTION ITEMS:
OBJECTIVE 2: SUPPORT LITTER PREVENTION
ACTION ITEMS:
Degradable Plastics
ACTION ITEMS:
29. Recent Legislative and Regulatory Actions
LOCAL AND STATE ACTIONS
FEDERAL ACTIONS
IMPLICATIONS FOR PLASTICS RECYCLING

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