Handbook on Food Biotechnology (Extraction, Processing of Fruits, Vegetables and Food Products) 2nd Revised Edition
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Author: NIIR Board of Consultants & Engineers |
Modern biotechnology refers to various scientific techniques used to produce specific desired traits in plants, animals or microorganisms through the use of genetic knowledge. Since its introduction to agriculture and food production in the early-1990, biotechnology has been utilized to develop new tools for improving productivity. Biotechnology is a broad term that applies to the use of living organisms and covers techniques that range from simple to sophisticated.
In contrast, modern agricultural biotechnology techniques, such as genetic engineering, allow for more precise development of crop and livestock varieties. The potential benefits of biotechnology are enormous. Food producers can use new biotechnology to produce new products with desirable characteristics. These include characteristics such as disease and drought-resistant plants, leaner meat and enhanced flavor and nutritional quality of foods. This technology has also been used to develop life-saving vaccines, insulin, cancer treatment and other pharmaceuticals to improve quality of life.
It is estimated that in the next 20-30 years demand for food will increase by 70%. Biotechnology will be key to meeting this demand. This handbook is designed for use by everyone engaged in thefoodtechnologysuch as fermentation, developing and testing of food and students who are pursuing their career in food biotechnology. It provide all information on modern cooking, food processing and preservation methods, juice preparation methods, etc.
The major content of the book are Fermenter and Bio-Reactor Design, Development and Testing of a Milled Shea Nut Mixer, Production of Pure Apple Juice in Natural Colour, Drying of Ginger using Solar Cabinet Dryer, Roasting of Coffee Beans, Processing of Guava into Pulp Guava Leather, Processing and Preservation of Jack Fruit, Quality Changes in Banana, Processing and Quality Evaluation of Banana Natural Colour, Large Scale Separation and Isolation of Proteins, Preparation and Storage Studies on Onion-Ginger-Garlic Paste, Bitterness Development in Kinnow Juice, Effect of Incorporation of Defatted Soyflour, Gum from Ber Fruits, Juice Extraction of Aonla (EmblicaOfficinalisGaertn.) Cv. ‘Chakaiya’, Defatted Mucuna Flour in Biscuits, Detoxifying Enzymes, Processing Methods and Photographs of Machinery with Suppliers Contact Details.
This book will be a mile stone for its readers who are new to this sector, will also find useful for professionals, entrepreneurs, those studying and researching in this important area.
In contrast, modern agricultural biotechnology techniques, such as genetic engineering, allow for more precise development of crop and livestock varieties. The potential benefits of biotechnology are enormous. Food producers can use new biotechnology to produce new products with desirable characteristics. These include characteristics such as disease and drought-resistant plants, leaner meat and enhanced flavor and nutritional quality of foods. This technology has also been used to develop life-saving vaccines, insulin, cancer treatment and other pharmaceuticals to improve quality of life.
It is estimated that in the next 20-30 years demand for food will increase by 70%. Biotechnology will be key to meeting this demand. This handbook is designed for use by everyone engaged in thefoodtechnologysuch as fermentation, developing and testing of food and students who are pursuing their career in food biotechnology. It provide all information on modern cooking, food processing and preservation methods, juice preparation methods, etc.
The major content of the book are Fermenter and Bio-Reactor Design, Development and Testing of a Milled Shea Nut Mixer, Production of Pure Apple Juice in Natural Colour, Drying of Ginger using Solar Cabinet Dryer, Roasting of Coffee Beans, Processing of Guava into Pulp Guava Leather, Processing and Preservation of Jack Fruit, Quality Changes in Banana, Processing and Quality Evaluation of Banana Natural Colour, Large Scale Separation and Isolation of Proteins, Preparation and Storage Studies on Onion-Ginger-Garlic Paste, Bitterness Development in Kinnow Juice, Effect of Incorporation of Defatted Soyflour, Gum from Ber Fruits, Juice Extraction of Aonla (EmblicaOfficinalisGaertn.) Cv. ‘Chakaiya’, Defatted Mucuna Flour in Biscuits, Detoxifying Enzymes, Processing Methods and Photographs of Machinery with Suppliers Contact Details.
This book will be a mile stone for its readers who are new to this sector, will also find useful for professionals, entrepreneurs, those studying and researching in this important area.
Contents
1. FERMENTER AND BIO-REACTOR DESIGN
NOTATION
FERMENTATION PROCESSES
BIOLOGICAL CONSTRAINTS
Nutrient
Oxygen
Temperature
pH
Rheology
Other Constraints
PRODUCT TYPE
Intracellular Products
Extracellular Product
Secondary Metabolites
FERMENTER CATEGORIES
Overview
Batch/Continuous Fermenters
Batch Operation
Continuous Operation
Agitated Fermenters
Stirred Fermenter
Air-agitated Fermenter
Internal Circulation
Air-lift Fermenter
Immobilised Systems
ANAEROBIC FERMENTATIONS
Novel Fermenters
DESIGN PROCEDURES
Scale-up
Kinetics
(vi)
OXYGEN TRANSFER
Oxygen Demand
Basis of Scale-up
Heat Transfer
SAFETY
STERILE DESIGN AND CONTAINMENT
Principles
Techniques
Pre-sterilisation
Feed Sterilisation
Sterile Barriers
FUTURE TRENDS
2. DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF A MILLED SHEA NUT MIXER
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Design of the Mixer
Developmental
Geometry of mixing bowl
Mixing velocity of beater
Beater Mounting Shaft
CONSTRUCTION OF THE MIXER
Frame
Mixing Beater Shaft
Mixing Vessel
Evaluation
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Effect of Beater Speed on Mixing Period, capacity and Oil Recovery
Economics of the Mixer
CONCLUSION
NOTATIONS
3. PRODUCTION OF PURE APPLE JUICE IN NATURAL COLOUR
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Apple
Juicer
Modification of Juicer
Hot Water Bath
Cold Water bath
Filtration
Bottling and Sterilization
(vii)
Spectrum of Brown Pigment formed in Apple Juice and
Measurement of Degree of Browning
Determination of the Temperature required for Inactivation of PPO
Sensory Evaluation
Operational Procedure
Cleaning of Tube in Water Baths
Apple Powder
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Organoleptic Evaluation
4. DRYING OF GINGER USING SOLAR CABINET DRYER
5. ROASTING OF COFFEE BEANS
ROASTING PROCESS
Physical Properties
Swelling Ratio
Breaking Strength
Colour Value
Organoleptic Evaluation
6. PROCESSING OF GUAVA INTO PULP AND GUAVA LEATHER
EXTRACTION OF PULP
Preparation of Guava Leather
Preparation of Ready-to-Serve Drinks
Chemical Constituents
Pulp Analysis
Quality of Guava Leather
CONCLUSION
7. PROCESSING AND PRESERVATION OF JACK FRUIT
8. QUALITY CHANGES IN BANANA
BANANAS
Fermentation
Analysis
Sensory Evaluation
Statistical Analysis
Total Soluble Solids (°Brix)
Total Titratable Acidity
Colour
Clarity
(viii)
Sensory Evaluation
Microbiological Evaluation
DEVELOPMENT OF PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY AND QUALITY
EVALUATION OF PAPAYA (CARICA PAPAYA) CHEESE ON STORAGE
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Raw Materials
Processing
Experimental Design
Physical and Microbiological Analyses
Sensory Evaluation
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Colour and Texture
Sensory Qualities
Microbiological Properties
9. PROCESSING AND QUALITY EVALUATION OF BANANA
BANANAS
Processing
Physico-Chemical Analysis
Microbial Analysis
Sensory Analysis
Sensory Evaluation
Analyses
Microbial
Storage
10. LARGE SCALE SEPARATION AND ISOLATION OF PROTEINS
THE NATURE OF PROTEINS
Chemistry
Behaviour in Solution
RECOVERY PROCESS CONCEPTS
SEPARATION TECHNIQUES
Precipitation
Cell Disruption
Solid-Liquid Separations
Usage
Centrifugation
Dead-end Filtration
Cross-flow Filtration
Two-phase Aqueous Liquid-Liquid Extraction
Ultrafiltration and Reverse Osmosis
(ix)
Chromatography
Introduction
Ion Exchange Chromatography
Gel Filtration
Adsorption Chromatography
Hydrophobic Interaction Chromatography
High-performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)
Affinity Chromatography
Protein Separations in Electrical Fields
Electrodialysis
Electrophoresis
Isoelectric Focussing
Novel and Experimental Protein Separation Techniques
PROTEIN RECOVERY PROCESSES: NON-FERMENTATION
FEEDSTOCKS
Recovery of Waste Proteins from the Meat Industry
Proteins from Milk
Casein
Whey Powder
Whey Protein Isolate
Proteins from Agricultural Crops
Soya Proteins
‘Leaf ’ Proteins
Vegetable Processing Waste Streams
Protein Recovery from Blood Plasma
Human Blood
Animal Blood
RECOVERY OF MICROBIAL AND ANIMAL CELL PROTEINS
Recovery Process Principles
Single-cell Protein
Extracellular Enzyme Recovery Processes
Recovery of Biologically Active Proteins
Impact of rDNA Techniques on Protein Recovery
SAFETY ASPECTS OF PROTEIN RECOVERY PROCESSES
11. PREPARATION AND STORAGE STUDIES ON ONION-GINGER-GARLIC PASTE
PREPARATION OF PUREE
Preparation of mixed paste
Colour measurement
Storage studies
Physico-chemical properties
Statistical analysis
Storage characteristics
(x)
STUDIES ON DEVELOPMENT OF INSTANT CHUTNEYS FROM
PUDINA (MINT, MENTHA SPICATA) AND GONGURA (HIBISCUS SP)
Materials
Preparation of fresh chutneys
Preparation of instant chutneys
Chemical analysis
Reconstitution of instant chutney powders at room temperature
12. BITTERNESS DEVELOPMENT IN KINNOW JUICE
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Materials
Juice
Ready-to-Serve (RTS) beverage
Squash
Lye peeling of segments
Jam
Candy
Physico-chemical analysis
Sensory analysis
Statistical analysis
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Kinnow juice
Kinnow RTS beverage
Kinnow squash
Standardisation of lye peeling
Kinnow jam
Kinnow candy
13. EFFECT OF INCORPORATION OF DEFATTED SOYFLOUR
RAW MATERIAL
Preparation of sweet biscuits
Proximate composition
Textural analysis
Sensory evaluation
14. GUM FROM BER FRUITS
15. JUICE EXTRACTION OF AONLA (EMBLICA OFFICINALIS GAERTN.) CV. ‘CHAKAIYA’
ANALYSIS
Physico-chemical characteristics
Organoleptic evaluation
(xi)
16. DEFATTED MUCUNA FLOUR IN BISCUITS
BISCUIT FORMULATION
Chemical analysis
17. DETOXIFYING ENZYMES
GOITROGENIC GLYCOSIDES
CYANOGENIC GLYCOSIDES
Cassava
Lima Beans
Fruit and Nut Kernels
FLATULENCE-PRODUCING OLIGOSACCHARIDES PHYTATE
Effect of Autolysis
Effect of Adding Phytase
Effect of Germination
Effect of Fermentation
OTHER ANTI-NUTRITIONAL FACTORS
Protease Inhibitors and Lectins
Toxic Glucosides
Gossypol
Lathyrogenic Factor
CONCLUSIONS
18. PROCESSING METHODS
SUGAR REFINING
The Sugar Cane
The Sugar Beet Roots
THE PURPOSE OF THE REFINING PROCESS
The Raw Sugar
The Refined White Sugar
Cube Sugar
STAGES IN THE REFINING PROCESS
The First Process—Mixing With Raw Syrup
The Syrup and Washings Are Now Boiled to Grain
Removing the Coarse Insoluble Impurities
Removal of Further Impurities
The Bone Charcoal Treatment for Decolorisation
The Wet Char is Next Removed to the Revivification Kilns
The Revivification Kilns
How Refined Sugar is Obtained from the Fine Liquor
The Formation of the Sugar Crystals
The Rotating Dryers
Treatment to Produce Further Yields of Sugar
Packing the Sugars
(xii)
SUGAR CONFECTIONERY
HIGH BOILINGS
Starch Syrup
Methods of Cooking
Cooling and Manipulation
FONDANT
FONDANT CREAMS
Deposition into Moulds
Wet Crystallization
JELLIES AND GUMS
Soft Jellies
Hard Gums
TOFFEE, CARAMEL, AND FUDGE
Fudge
NOUGAT AND MARSHMALLOW
LOZENGES
CHOCOLATE MANUFACTURE
RAW MATERIALS
Cocoa
Sugar
Cocoa Butter
Milk
Flavours
Commercial Lecithin
PROCESSING
Roasting
Breaking and Winnowing
Grinding
Melangeuring
Refining
Conching
CHOCOLATE FLUIDITY
Methods of Control
Factors Affecting Fluidity
MOULDING AND COVERING
Tempering
Cooling Tunnels
STORAGE PROPERTIES
Insect Infestation
JAM MANUFACTURE
SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES
FRUIT AND ITS PREPARATION
(xiii)
Strawberries
Raspberries
Blackcurrants
Gooseberries
Plums
Apples
Citrus Fruits
PRESERVATION OF FRUIT
Sulphurous Acid as a Preservative
Preparation of Cooked Fruit Pulp
JAM BOILING
Basic Rules
The Boiling Process
FINISHING AND STORING
Filling Containers By Hand
Filling Machines
Sealing Methods
EDIBLE FATS—SHORTENINGS
MANUFACTURE OF LARD
Dry Rendering
Wet Rendering
Qualities of Lard
LARD COMPOUNDS
HYDROGENATED OILS
Preliminary Refining
Hydrogenation
Deodorisation
Vitamin Addition
Cooling
COMPOUND SHORTENINGS
STABILITY OF SHORTENINGS
FLOUR MILLING
THE STRUCTURE OF THE WHEAT GRAIN
THE MILLING PROCESS
Wheat Intake
Wheat Cleaning
Washing and Conditioning
The Break System
Break Scalping
Purification
Reduction System
Pneumatic Conveying
Flour Treatment and Flour Bleaching
(xiv)
COMPOSITION OF WHEAT AND ITS MILLED PRODUCTS
BAKING QUALITY OF WHEAT FLOUR
Protein Quality
Diastatic Activity
WHEAT BLENDING
WHEAT TESTING
BREADMAKING
INGREDIENTS OF BREAD
Proportions of Materials Used
PREPARATION OF THE DOUGH
Fermentation of the Dough
What is there in a Dough ?
What Happens in the Dough during Fermentation?
The Factors Affecting Gluten Maturing
“Knocking” or “Cutting-back” the Dough
After-Fermentation Treatment
Dividing the Dough into Loaves
The “Hander-up”
The “Moulder”
THE BAKING PROCESS
The Action of the Oven
Yeast Activity Increases as the Temperature Rises
Why Steam is Injected into the Oven
The Death Point of the Yeast
Faults Due to Incorrect Fermentation
Why Loaves are a Pleasant Brown Colour
BREAD WRAPPING
BISCUIT MANUFACTURE AND CAKE MAKING
BISCUITS
INGREDIENTS
Flour
Fats
Other Ingredients
THE BAKING PROCESS
FAULTS
Checking of Biscuits
Bacteriology
CAKES
INGREDIENTS
Flour
Fat
Sweetening Agents
Eggs
Aerating Agents and pH
(xv)
THE MIXING PROCESS
THE BAKING PROCESS
Staling
Bacteriology
19. PHOTOGRAPHS OF PLANT & MACHINERY WITH SUPPLIER'S CONTACT DETAILS
NOTATION
FERMENTATION PROCESSES
BIOLOGICAL CONSTRAINTS
Nutrient
Oxygen
Temperature
pH
Rheology
Other Constraints
PRODUCT TYPE
Intracellular Products
Extracellular Product
Secondary Metabolites
FERMENTER CATEGORIES
Overview
Batch/Continuous Fermenters
Batch Operation
Continuous Operation
Agitated Fermenters
Stirred Fermenter
Air-agitated Fermenter
Internal Circulation
Air-lift Fermenter
Immobilised Systems
ANAEROBIC FERMENTATIONS
Novel Fermenters
DESIGN PROCEDURES
Scale-up
Kinetics
(vi)
OXYGEN TRANSFER
Oxygen Demand
Basis of Scale-up
Heat Transfer
SAFETY
STERILE DESIGN AND CONTAINMENT
Principles
Techniques
Pre-sterilisation
Feed Sterilisation
Sterile Barriers
FUTURE TRENDS
2. DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF A MILLED SHEA NUT MIXER
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Design of the Mixer
Developmental
Geometry of mixing bowl
Mixing velocity of beater
Beater Mounting Shaft
CONSTRUCTION OF THE MIXER
Frame
Mixing Beater Shaft
Mixing Vessel
Evaluation
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Effect of Beater Speed on Mixing Period, capacity and Oil Recovery
Economics of the Mixer
CONCLUSION
NOTATIONS
3. PRODUCTION OF PURE APPLE JUICE IN NATURAL COLOUR
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Apple
Juicer
Modification of Juicer
Hot Water Bath
Cold Water bath
Filtration
Bottling and Sterilization
(vii)
Spectrum of Brown Pigment formed in Apple Juice and
Measurement of Degree of Browning
Determination of the Temperature required for Inactivation of PPO
Sensory Evaluation
Operational Procedure
Cleaning of Tube in Water Baths
Apple Powder
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Organoleptic Evaluation
4. DRYING OF GINGER USING SOLAR CABINET DRYER
5. ROASTING OF COFFEE BEANS
ROASTING PROCESS
Physical Properties
Swelling Ratio
Breaking Strength
Colour Value
Organoleptic Evaluation
6. PROCESSING OF GUAVA INTO PULP AND GUAVA LEATHER
EXTRACTION OF PULP
Preparation of Guava Leather
Preparation of Ready-to-Serve Drinks
Chemical Constituents
Pulp Analysis
Quality of Guava Leather
CONCLUSION
7. PROCESSING AND PRESERVATION OF JACK FRUIT
8. QUALITY CHANGES IN BANANA
BANANAS
Fermentation
Analysis
Sensory Evaluation
Statistical Analysis
Total Soluble Solids (°Brix)
Total Titratable Acidity
Colour
Clarity
(viii)
Sensory Evaluation
Microbiological Evaluation
DEVELOPMENT OF PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY AND QUALITY
EVALUATION OF PAPAYA (CARICA PAPAYA) CHEESE ON STORAGE
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Raw Materials
Processing
Experimental Design
Physical and Microbiological Analyses
Sensory Evaluation
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Colour and Texture
Sensory Qualities
Microbiological Properties
9. PROCESSING AND QUALITY EVALUATION OF BANANA
BANANAS
Processing
Physico-Chemical Analysis
Microbial Analysis
Sensory Analysis
Sensory Evaluation
Analyses
Microbial
Storage
10. LARGE SCALE SEPARATION AND ISOLATION OF PROTEINS
THE NATURE OF PROTEINS
Chemistry
Behaviour in Solution
RECOVERY PROCESS CONCEPTS
SEPARATION TECHNIQUES
Precipitation
Cell Disruption
Solid-Liquid Separations
Usage
Centrifugation
Dead-end Filtration
Cross-flow Filtration
Two-phase Aqueous Liquid-Liquid Extraction
Ultrafiltration and Reverse Osmosis
(ix)
Chromatography
Introduction
Ion Exchange Chromatography
Gel Filtration
Adsorption Chromatography
Hydrophobic Interaction Chromatography
High-performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)
Affinity Chromatography
Protein Separations in Electrical Fields
Electrodialysis
Electrophoresis
Isoelectric Focussing
Novel and Experimental Protein Separation Techniques
PROTEIN RECOVERY PROCESSES: NON-FERMENTATION
FEEDSTOCKS
Recovery of Waste Proteins from the Meat Industry
Proteins from Milk
Casein
Whey Powder
Whey Protein Isolate
Proteins from Agricultural Crops
Soya Proteins
‘Leaf ’ Proteins
Vegetable Processing Waste Streams
Protein Recovery from Blood Plasma
Human Blood
Animal Blood
RECOVERY OF MICROBIAL AND ANIMAL CELL PROTEINS
Recovery Process Principles
Single-cell Protein
Extracellular Enzyme Recovery Processes
Recovery of Biologically Active Proteins
Impact of rDNA Techniques on Protein Recovery
SAFETY ASPECTS OF PROTEIN RECOVERY PROCESSES
11. PREPARATION AND STORAGE STUDIES ON ONION-GINGER-GARLIC PASTE
PREPARATION OF PUREE
Preparation of mixed paste
Colour measurement
Storage studies
Physico-chemical properties
Statistical analysis
Storage characteristics
(x)
STUDIES ON DEVELOPMENT OF INSTANT CHUTNEYS FROM
PUDINA (MINT, MENTHA SPICATA) AND GONGURA (HIBISCUS SP)
Materials
Preparation of fresh chutneys
Preparation of instant chutneys
Chemical analysis
Reconstitution of instant chutney powders at room temperature
12. BITTERNESS DEVELOPMENT IN KINNOW JUICE
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Materials
Juice
Ready-to-Serve (RTS) beverage
Squash
Lye peeling of segments
Jam
Candy
Physico-chemical analysis
Sensory analysis
Statistical analysis
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Kinnow juice
Kinnow RTS beverage
Kinnow squash
Standardisation of lye peeling
Kinnow jam
Kinnow candy
13. EFFECT OF INCORPORATION OF DEFATTED SOYFLOUR
RAW MATERIAL
Preparation of sweet biscuits
Proximate composition
Textural analysis
Sensory evaluation
14. GUM FROM BER FRUITS
15. JUICE EXTRACTION OF AONLA (EMBLICA OFFICINALIS GAERTN.) CV. ‘CHAKAIYA’
ANALYSIS
Physico-chemical characteristics
Organoleptic evaluation
(xi)
16. DEFATTED MUCUNA FLOUR IN BISCUITS
BISCUIT FORMULATION
Chemical analysis
17. DETOXIFYING ENZYMES
GOITROGENIC GLYCOSIDES
CYANOGENIC GLYCOSIDES
Cassava
Lima Beans
Fruit and Nut Kernels
FLATULENCE-PRODUCING OLIGOSACCHARIDES PHYTATE
Effect of Autolysis
Effect of Adding Phytase
Effect of Germination
Effect of Fermentation
OTHER ANTI-NUTRITIONAL FACTORS
Protease Inhibitors and Lectins
Toxic Glucosides
Gossypol
Lathyrogenic Factor
CONCLUSIONS
18. PROCESSING METHODS
SUGAR REFINING
The Sugar Cane
The Sugar Beet Roots
THE PURPOSE OF THE REFINING PROCESS
The Raw Sugar
The Refined White Sugar
Cube Sugar
STAGES IN THE REFINING PROCESS
The First Process—Mixing With Raw Syrup
The Syrup and Washings Are Now Boiled to Grain
Removing the Coarse Insoluble Impurities
Removal of Further Impurities
The Bone Charcoal Treatment for Decolorisation
The Wet Char is Next Removed to the Revivification Kilns
The Revivification Kilns
How Refined Sugar is Obtained from the Fine Liquor
The Formation of the Sugar Crystals
The Rotating Dryers
Treatment to Produce Further Yields of Sugar
Packing the Sugars
(xii)
SUGAR CONFECTIONERY
HIGH BOILINGS
Starch Syrup
Methods of Cooking
Cooling and Manipulation
FONDANT
FONDANT CREAMS
Deposition into Moulds
Wet Crystallization
JELLIES AND GUMS
Soft Jellies
Hard Gums
TOFFEE, CARAMEL, AND FUDGE
Fudge
NOUGAT AND MARSHMALLOW
LOZENGES
CHOCOLATE MANUFACTURE
RAW MATERIALS
Cocoa
Sugar
Cocoa Butter
Milk
Flavours
Commercial Lecithin
PROCESSING
Roasting
Breaking and Winnowing
Grinding
Melangeuring
Refining
Conching
CHOCOLATE FLUIDITY
Methods of Control
Factors Affecting Fluidity
MOULDING AND COVERING
Tempering
Cooling Tunnels
STORAGE PROPERTIES
Insect Infestation
JAM MANUFACTURE
SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES
FRUIT AND ITS PREPARATION
(xiii)
Strawberries
Raspberries
Blackcurrants
Gooseberries
Plums
Apples
Citrus Fruits
PRESERVATION OF FRUIT
Sulphurous Acid as a Preservative
Preparation of Cooked Fruit Pulp
JAM BOILING
Basic Rules
The Boiling Process
FINISHING AND STORING
Filling Containers By Hand
Filling Machines
Sealing Methods
EDIBLE FATS—SHORTENINGS
MANUFACTURE OF LARD
Dry Rendering
Wet Rendering
Qualities of Lard
LARD COMPOUNDS
HYDROGENATED OILS
Preliminary Refining
Hydrogenation
Deodorisation
Vitamin Addition
Cooling
COMPOUND SHORTENINGS
STABILITY OF SHORTENINGS
FLOUR MILLING
THE STRUCTURE OF THE WHEAT GRAIN
THE MILLING PROCESS
Wheat Intake
Wheat Cleaning
Washing and Conditioning
The Break System
Break Scalping
Purification
Reduction System
Pneumatic Conveying
Flour Treatment and Flour Bleaching
(xiv)
COMPOSITION OF WHEAT AND ITS MILLED PRODUCTS
BAKING QUALITY OF WHEAT FLOUR
Protein Quality
Diastatic Activity
WHEAT BLENDING
WHEAT TESTING
BREADMAKING
INGREDIENTS OF BREAD
Proportions of Materials Used
PREPARATION OF THE DOUGH
Fermentation of the Dough
What is there in a Dough ?
What Happens in the Dough during Fermentation?
The Factors Affecting Gluten Maturing
“Knocking” or “Cutting-back” the Dough
After-Fermentation Treatment
Dividing the Dough into Loaves
The “Hander-up”
The “Moulder”
THE BAKING PROCESS
The Action of the Oven
Yeast Activity Increases as the Temperature Rises
Why Steam is Injected into the Oven
The Death Point of the Yeast
Faults Due to Incorrect Fermentation
Why Loaves are a Pleasant Brown Colour
BREAD WRAPPING
BISCUIT MANUFACTURE AND CAKE MAKING
BISCUITS
INGREDIENTS
Flour
Fats
Other Ingredients
THE BAKING PROCESS
FAULTS
Checking of Biscuits
Bacteriology
CAKES
INGREDIENTS
Flour
Fat
Sweetening Agents
Eggs
Aerating Agents and pH
(xv)
THE MIXING PROCESS
THE BAKING PROCESS
Staling
Bacteriology
19. PHOTOGRAPHS OF PLANT & MACHINERY WITH SUPPLIER'S CONTACT DETAILS
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