1 SYNTHESIS OF TRIAZINO BENZIMIDAZOL AS 1 BIOPESTICIDES
Antimicrobial Activity, Experimental
2. STUDIES ON COUMARIN DERIVATIVES
Experimental Procedure
3. SYNTHESIS AND INSECT GROWTH REGULATING
ACTIVITY OF BENZOYLPHENYLUREAS
Experimental Procedure, Synthesis, Insect Growth Regulating (IGR) Activity against Mosquito Vectors
4. SYNTHESIS AND PESTICIDAL ACTIVITIES OF
THIADIAZOLO-S-TRIAZINE AND IMIDAZOL
Fungicidal Activity, Bactericidal Activity,
Herbicidal Activity, Experimental
5. SYNTHESIS AND FUNGICIDAL ACTIVITY OF
THIAZOLIDINE AND 2-ARYL INDOLES
Fungicidal Activity, Experimental
6. SYNTHESIS AND BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY OF
BENZOTHIAZOLES/BENZOXAZOLES/
BENZIMIDAZOLES/IMIDAZOLIDINES
Biological Activity, Experimental
7. ANTIMICROBIAL AGENTS
Antifungal Activity, Experimental
8. SYNTHESIS AND ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITIES
OF PYRAZOLES
Biological Testing, Experimental Procedure,
General Procedure
9. SYNTHESIS AND INSECTICIDAL ACTIVITY OF
NEW SUBSTITUTED HYDROXYACETOPHENONES
Insecticidal Activity, Experimental Procedure
10. SYNTHESES OF SULFANILYL DERIVATIVES
Biological Activity, Experimental Procedure
11. QSAR OF FLURIDONE
Materials and Methods, Results and Discussion
12. INTERFERENCE OF FLURIDONE
Materials and Methods, Results, Discussion
13. ABSORPTION AND METABOLISM OF
CLOMAZONE
Materials and Methods, Results, Discussion
14. ANTIDOTE MODE OF ACTION
Materials and Methods, General, [14C] Metazachlor Metabolism Studies, Effect of BAS on Metazachlor Metabolism in Excised Tissues, Effect of BAS on Metazachlor Phytotoxicity at Metabolism in Three Corn Cultivars and Wheat, Mobility of Metazachlor Metabolites, Effect of BAS and Metazachlor on [14C] Metazachlor Absorption, Effect of BAS on GSH Levels and GST Activity, Results and Discussion, Effect of BAS on Metazachlor Metabolism in Excised Tissues, Effect of BAS on Metazachlor Phytotoxicity and Metabolism in Three Corn Cultivars and Wheat, Mobility of Metazachlor Metabolites, Effect of BAS and Metazachlor on [14C]Metazachlor Absorption, Effect of BAS on GSH Levels and GST Activity
15. DICLOFOP RESISTANCE IN AVENA FATUA
Materials and Methods, Results, Discussion
16. EFFECTS OF PENCONAZOLE ON PLASMA
MEMBRANE
Materials and Methods, Results and Discussion, Conclusions
17. MECHANISM OF RESISTANCE TO ABAMECTIN
Materials and Methods, Results, Discussion
18. QSAR OF m-PHENOXYBENZYL ACRYLATES
Materials and Methods, Results and Discussion
19. CHLORIMURON ETHYL METABOLISM IN CORN
Materials and Methods, Chemical, Plant Treatment, Extraction of Tissue, Chromatography, Purification of Metabolites for Mass Spectrometry, Mass Spectrometry, Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectrometry, -Glucosidase Hydrolysis, Results, Uptake and Metabolism of Chlorimuron Ethyl, Detection of Metabolites, Chlorimuron Ethyl, Metabolite, Discussion and Conclusions
20. SUPEROXIDE DISMUTASE INHIBITION BY
-TERTHIENYL
Materials and Methods, Discussion
21. PARATHION METABOLISM BY SOYBEAN LIPOXYGENASE
Materials and Methods, Results, Discussion
22 DEPOLARIZATION STUDIES OF PYRETHROIDS
Materials and Methods, Results, Depolarization of the Resting Membrane, Depolarizing Activity in Axonal Membranes, Relationship between Neuroblocking and Excitatory Potencies and Depolarizing Potency, Relationship between the Insecticidal Potency and the Depolarizing Potency, Discussion
23. RATE OF KNOCKDOWN STUDIES OF
PYRETHROIDS
Materials and Methods, Compounds, Hydrophobicity of Compounds, Knockdown Effect against House Flies, Membrane Potential of the Axon of American Cockroaches, Results, Knockdown Effect at the Earliest Stage and at the Steady State of Intoxication, Rate of Development of Knockdown, Effect of Structural Factors on the Rate of Development of Knockdown,Depolarization of the Axonal Membrane of American Cockroaches, Effect of Structural Factors on the Rate of Depolarization of Cockroach Axonal Membranes, Discussion
24. PHYSIOLOGICAL ROLE OF ARYL ACYLAMIDASE
Materials and Methods, Results, Discussion
25. THIOPHENE SAR
Materials and Methods, Results and Discussion, Toxicity of Thiophenes to Mosquito Larvae,
Structure-Activity Relationships, Specificity of Thiophene Toxicity, Significance of Hydrophobicity to Phototoxicity
26. EFFECTS OF CHLOBENTHIAZONE ON AFLATOXIN
BIOSYNTHESIS
Materials and Methods, Results, Discussion
27. BIOCHEMICAL STUDIES OF ESTERASES
Materials and Methods, Strains, Isoelectric Focusing, Molecular Weight Determination, Semipurification of Esterases, Kinetics, Results, Isoelectric Focusing, Molecular Weight Determination, Partial Purification of Esterases, Kinetic Analysis, Discussion
28. CYTOCHROME P450 IN P. ITALICUM
Materials and Methods, Results, Toxicity Studies, Isolation of Cytochrome P450, Stability of Cytochrome P450 at different PH, Type II Spectra, Displacement Tests, Discussion
29. PHARMACOKINETICS OF JHE IN INSECTS
Materials and Methods, Results and Discussion
30. OCTOPAMINERGIC ACTION OF CARBODIIMIDE
METABOLITE OF DIAFENTHIURON
Materials and Methods, Results, Discussion
31. METABOLISM OF DICLOFOP-METHYL
Materials and Methods, Results and Discussion, Conclusions
32. HERBICIDAL STEROL BIOSYNTHESIS INHIBITOR
Materials and Methods, Plant Material, Yeast Material, Isolation of Microsomes, [14C] Mevalonate Labeling Studies, Chemicals, Sterol Extraction, Sterol Separation, Analytical HPLC, Identification of Sterols, Cytochrome P450 Spectra, Results, Discussion
33. ORGANOPHOSPHORUS AND CARBAMATE
RESISTANCE
Methods, Results, Discussion
34 . MODE OF ACTION OF N-PHENYLIMIDE
Materials and Methods, Results, Discussion
35 . MODE OF ACTION OF FUNGICIDAL
IMIDAZOLE-1-CARBOXYLATES
Materials and Methods, Fungicides, Antifungal Activity, Sterol Analysis, Binding Study, Results, Fungicidal Activity, Effect of Imidazole-I-Carboxylates on Sterol Biosynthesis, Binding of lmidazole-l-Carboxylates to Cytochrome P450, Discussion
36. DIAFENTHIURON HAS A NOVEL MODE OF
ACTION
Materials and Methods, Chemicals, Animals, Topical Application and Toxicity Determination, In Vivo Distribution and Metabolites, Tests on Cuticle Formation, Acetylcholinesterase Assay, Ecdysone 20-hydroxylase Assay, Preparation of Mitochondria and Microsomes, Spectroscopy of Liver Cytochrome P450, Mitochondrial Respiration, Isolated Limulus Heart, Isolated Locusta Thoracic Neuronal Somata, Cockroach Giant Axon, Musca Larval Body Wall Neuromuscular Junction, Results, In Vivo Observations and Toxicity, In Vivo Distribution in Calliphora, Metabolism of Diafenthiuron and Binding to Cytochrome P450, Tests on Inhibition of Cuticle Formation, AChE, and Ecdysone 20-hydroxylase, Inhibition of Mitochondrial Respiration in Vitro, Isolated Limulus Heart, Isolated Locusta Thoracic Neuronal Somata, Cockroach Giant Axon, Musca Larval Body Wall Neuromuscular Junction, Discussion
37. RESPONSE TO METALDEHYDE IN SNAIL
NEURONES
Materials and Methods, Results, Discussion
38. BLEACHING HERBICIDES STIMULATE MAIZE
HMGR ACTIVITY
Materials and Methods, Results, Discussion
39. GLUTATHIONE S-TRANSFERASE AND
DIAMONDBACK MOTH
Materials and Methods, Chemicals, Insects and Bioassays, In Vitro Degradation of some OPs, Inhibition of Acetylcholinesterase (AChE), Results and Discussion
40. SOIL TRANSFORMATION OF ACETOCHLOR
Materials and Methods, Results and Discussion
41. PROPANIL DEGRADING AMIDASE ACTIVITY
Materials and Methods, Results, Discussion
42. INHIBITION OF BTX-B BINDING BY RH 3421
Materials and Methods, Results, Discussion
43. KDR-TYPE RESISTANCE IN GERMAN COCKROACH
Materials and Methods, Results and Discussion

^ Top

Synthesis of Triazino Benzimidazol as Biopesticides

[1,2,4]Triazino [4,3-a] benzimidazol-4(10 H)-ones(4) have been obtained by the reaction of 2-hydrazinobenzimidazole with ethyl pyruvate in neutral medium followed by hydrolysis and cyclization. Further, it has been found that these compounds exist in two tautomeric forms due to the labile hydrogen. The compounds display promising activity when screened for their antibacterial and antifungal activities.

Various 2-substituted benzimidazoles possessing antimicrobial activity have been reported by several group of workers. 2-Hydrazinobenzimidazoles are highly reactive compounds; some of the derivatives have been used as azodyes while some other derivatives show tuberculostatic and influenza virus inhibition activities. In pursuit of our search for new and better antimicrobial agents, we have now synthesized [1,2,4] triazinobenzimidazol-4(10 H)-ones(4) by the reaction of 2-hydrazinobenzimidazoles with ethyl pyruvate. This procedure which involved three steps (Scheme 1) gave 4 in better yields than that reported by other workers from the reaction of ethyl pyruvate with other hydrazines.

2-Hydrazinobenzimidazoles on refluxing with ethyl pyruvate in ethanol for 6-7 hr gave ethyl a-oxopropionate benzimidazol-2-ylhydrazones(2). Alkaline hydrolysis of 2 in 50% ethanol gave a-oxopropionic acid benzimidazol-2-ylhydrazones(3) which underwent cyclization with gl. acetic acid affording 4 (Scheme 1).

In the PMR spectrum of 4d, the aromatic protons appeared as a multiplet in the region d. 7,1 -7.3, as in the case of hydrazone 3d. This indicates the cyclization to be linear giving 4 and not the angular isomer (4'). If 4' had been formed, C9-H would have appeared slightly downfield due to deshielding effect of the carbonyl group.

The characterization data of all the new compounds are given in Table 1. The IR, PMR, 13C NMR and mass spectral data of only representative compounds have been given (see Experimental).

Methylation of 3-methyl-[1, 2,4] triazino [4,3-a] benzimidazol-4(10H)-one (4a) in alkaline medium with methyl iodide, gave two compounds (5a, 5b). One of them was found to be 3,10-dimethyl-[1,2,4] triazino [4,3-a] benzimidazol-4 (10H)-one (5a) and the other as 1,3-dimethyl-[1,2,4] triazino [4,3-a] benzimidazol-4 (10 H)-one(5b) on the basis of PMR data. The N-methyl protons in 5b appeared at d 3.5 as compared to 5a where these appeared at 4.0, the data being in agreement with the respective environment. The formation of these products prompted us to make a new and important conclusion that [1,2,4] triazino [4,3-a] benzimidazol-4(10H)-ones exist in two tautomeric forms A and B. The former being the predominent form as indicated by the high yield of 5a.

Antimicrobial activity

Compounds 4a and 4c-4e of the series were evaluated for their antimicrobial activity following the method of Gould using streptomycin in antibacterial and mycostatin in antifungal activity as reference compounds.

All compounds were active against gram positive bacteria Staphylococcu saureus while none was active against gram negative bacteria. Compound 4e showed maximum zone of inhibition (15.0 mm) against Staphylococcus aureus. Its enhanced activity may be attributed to the presence of fluorine. Compounds 4d and 4e were active against all the fungi tested. All the compounds showed maximum activity against Aspergillus flavus. Compound 4a showed maximum zone of inhibition (10.0 mm) against the fungus Drechslera tetramera. The results are recorded in Table 2.

Experimental

IR spectra in KBr (nmax in cm–1) were recorded on a Perkin-Elmer 577 spectrophotometer, PMR spectra in TFA on a Jeol FX 90Q spectrometer (89.55 MHz) using TMS as internal reference and 13CNMR spectra in DMSO-d6, at 22.49 MHz (chemical shifts in both cases in d, ppm). The mass spectra were recorded on MS-30 and MS-50 Krantos mass spectrometers at an ionisation potential of 70 eV. Melting points were determined in open glass capillaries on a Gallenkamp melting point apparatus and are uncorrected. Elemental analyses were performed at CDRI, Lucknow.

Studies on Coumarin Derivatives

On the synthesis and evaluation of biological activities of coumarins, we report here the synthesis of 1-aroyl-1, 2-dihydro-3H-naphtho [2, 1-b] pyran-3-ones (2) and the reactivity of their C-2 methylene groups toward some organic reagents aiming to synthesis new naphthopyrane derivatives which might have enhanced biological activities. Coumarin derivatives are known to exhibit bactericidal, bacterostatic, anticoagulant, anticancerogenic, rodenticidic and antihelminthic activities.

Condensation of b-(4-methoxy- or 3,4-dimethyl-benzoyl) acrylic acid with 2-naphthol in the presence of 75% sulphuric acid gave 1-(4-methoxy- or 3,4-dimethylbenzoyl)-1, 2-dihydro-3H-naphtho [2,1-b]-pyran-3-one (2a or 2b) (Scheme 1) via ring closure of the intermediate b-aroyl-b-(2-hydroxynaphthalen-1-yl)propionic acid (1), which gave positive acidity test and was formed exclusively and predominantly in the presence of 50% sulphuric acid.

Claisen-Schmidt condensation of the naphthopyrones (2) with aromatic aldehydes such as benzaldehyde, 2- and 4-chloro-benzaldehydes, and 3- and 4-nitrobenzaldehydes in the presence of piperidine afforded 1-aroyl-2-arylidene-1, 2-dihydro-3H-naphtho [2,1-b] pyran-3-ones (3a-f; Scheme 2) (Table 1).

Bromination of 2 in carbon tetrachloride at room temperature resulted in electrophilic substitution at both C-1 and C-2 to give 1,2-dibromo derivatives (4a and 4b; Table 1), while bromination of 2 in boiling acetic acid gave 1-aroyl-5-bromo-3H-naphtho [2,1-b] pyran-3-ones (5a and 5b) (Scheme 2) which probably resulted from bromination at C-1 followed by dehydrobromination and subsequent bromination of the more reactive aromatic C-5.

Base-catalyzed addition of 2 to 4-methoxybenzalacetophenone at 25° in the presence of sodium ethoxide yielded the expected Michael adducts 1-aroyl-2 - (1-p-methoxyphenyl-3-oxo-3-phenyl-prop-1 -yl)-1, 2-dihydro-3H-naphtho [2,1-b] pyran-3-ones(6a and 6b) while in the presence of isobutylamine, 2 underwent cycloaddition to give 12-aroyl-8, 12-dihydro-8-isobutyl-11 -(p-methoxyphenyl)-9-phenyl-11H-naphtho [1, 2':5, 6]-pyrano[2,3-b] pyridines (7a and 7b).

On the other hand at 120° the naphthopyrones (2) underwent base-catalyzed cycloaddition with 4-methoxybenzalacetophenone and/or ethyl benzoylacrylate to give the corresponding cyclic Michael adducts depending upon the type of base used. In the presence of sodium ethoxide, the reaction yielded 1-aryl-2-benzoyl-3a, 11 c-dihydro-3-(p-methoxy-phenyl/or carbethoxy) cyclopenta [d] naphtho [2,1-b]- pyran-4(3H)-ones (8a-c) while in the presence of ammonium acetate it gave 12-aroyl-8, 12-dihydro-11-(p-methoxyphenyl)-9-phenyl-11 H-naphtho [1', 2': 5,6]-pyrano [2,3-b] pyridines (7c and 7d) and in the presence of isobutylamine-4,7-dihydro-3-(2-hydroxynaphthyl)-1,7-diisobutyl-4-(p-methoxyphenyl)-6-phenyl-2-(3,4-xylyl)-1H-pyrrolo[2,3-b]-pyridine (9) was obtained.

Experimental Procedure

Melting points recorded are uncorrected. IR spectra were recorded on a Unicam SP 1200 spectrophotometer using KBR wafer technique (nmax in cm–1), and PMR spectra on a Varian T-60 instrument using TMS as internal standard (chemical shifts in d-scale).

b-(p-Anisoyl)-b-(2-hydroxynaphthalen-1 -yl)propionic acid(1)

A mixture of 2-naphthol (7.2 g, 0.05 mol), b-(p-anisoyl)acrylic acid (10.3 g, 0.05 mol) and sulphuric-acid (80 ml, 50%) was warmed on a water-bath for 2 hr, cooled, and poured into 200 ml cold water. The solid separated was filtered, washed with water, dried and crystallised from benzene to give 1 as brown crystals, yield 80%.

1 -Aroyl-1,2-dihydro-3H-naphtho [2,1-b]pyran-3-ones(2)

A mixture of 2-naphthol (7.2 g, 0.05 mol), b-(p-anisoyl)acrylic acid/or b-(3,4-dimethylbenzoyl) acrylic acid (0.05 mol) and sulphuric acid (80 ml, 75%) was warmed on a water-bath for 2 hr, cooled and poured into 200 ml cold water. The solid separated was filtered, washed with water, dried and crystallised from benzene-light petrol (80-100) to give 2a or 2b as orange crystals, yield 71-75%.

1 -A royl-2-arylidene- 1,2-dihydro-3H-naphtho[2,1-b]pyran-3-ones(3)

A solution of 2 (0.01 mol), an aromatic aldehyde (benzaldehyde, 2- or 4-chlorobenzaldehyde, 3- or 4-nitrobenzaldehyde) (0.01 mol), piperidine (a few drops) and ethanol (50 ml) was refluxed for 10 hr. The reaction mixture was cooled and poured into dil. HCl (100 ml, 10%). The solid product was filtered, washed with water, dried and crystallised from an appropriate solvent (cf. Table 1 ).

1-Aroyl-1,2-dibromo-1,2-dihydro-3H-naphtho-[2,1-b]pyran-3-ones

(4a, b)

To a stirred solution of naphthopyrone (2a, b) (0.006 mol) in carbon tetrachloride (40 ml), bromine (0.006 mol) in CCl4 (10 ml) was added dropwise during 1 hr at 25°. The reaction mixture was left to stand for 48 hr at room temperature. The solid product which separated after evaporation of CCl4 was crystallised from benzene to give 4a or 4b as yellow crystals (cf. Table 1 ).

1-Aroyl-5-bromo-3H- naphtho[2, 1-b]pyran-3-ones (5a,b)

A solution of naphthopyrone (2a, b) (0.006 mol), bromine (0.006 mol) and acetic acid (30 ml) was heated under reflux for 5 hr. The solid product which separated after concentration and cooling was filtered and crystallised from acetic acid to give 5a or 5b as reddish crystals (cf. Table 1).

Base-catalyzed addition and cycloaddition of naphthopyrones (2a, b) to p-methoxybenzalacetophenone/or ethyl benzoylacrylate. General procedures  (A) At 25°: Formation of(6a, b) and (7a, b).

A mixture of naphthopyrone (2a, b) (0.015 mol), p-methoxy-benzalacetophenone (0.01 mol) and sodium ethoxide (0.02 mol) or isobutylamine (2 ml) in abs. ethanol (30 ml) was left to stand at 25° for 3 days and then poured into HCl (50 ml, 10%). The solid product was filtered, washed with water, dried and crystallised from a suitable solvent to give 6 or 7 (cf. Table 1).

Synthesis and Insect Growth Regulating Activity of Benzoylphenylureas

Disruption of metamorphosis with the use of insect growth regulators has been recognized as an attractive target for insecticidal action because the process is vital to the development of invertebrates. The renewed interest in cuticle biochemistry, particular­ ly in chitin synthesis stems from the discovery of bioactive benzoylphenylureas more than a decade ago. A thorough quantitative structure-activity study was recently conducted for a large number of benzoylphenylureas (BPUs), with larvicidal activity and inhibition of cuticle formation in cultured integuments used as probing parameters. A number of insect growth regulators (IGRs) have been synthesized and evaluated in the laboratory and field conditions against Dipterous insects of medical and economic importance, particularly against mosquitoes.

The specific larvicidal spectra of certain compounds in this series were suggested to be due to innate differences in the metabolic mechanism besides differences in the physicochemical substituent effects on the ultimate activity. In this paper, we report the synthesis of a structurally modified class of BPU compounds by incorporating a methylene spacer between the benzamido and anilido segments of benzoylphenylurea.

These compounds were screened for their insect growth regulating activity against three different species of mosquito vectors.

Synthesis of the compounds with the desired structures was achieved through the new method. The yield of the product in most of the cases was around 80%. All the compounds were crystalline solids with high melting points (> 200°) and limited solubility in organic solvents. The IR spectra of the compounds showed two distinct carbonyl absorptions, one around 1650 and the other between 1675 and 1720 cm–1. The absorption at 1650 cm–1 may be due to the carbonyl function flanked between methylene and amino groups. The PMR spectra showed a doublet around d4.33 corresponding to the methylene group incorporated between benzamido and anilide moieties. The details of the spectral data are given in Table 1.

The biological activity of the compounds was determined against three vector species of mosquitoes. The preliminary screening results show that N-[(4-methylphenylamino) carbonylmethyl] benzamide (BGA-3), N-[(phenylamino) carbonyl-methyl]- 3,4-methylenedioxybenzamide (BGA-4) and N-[(3-trifluoromethylphenylamino) carbonylmethyl] benzamide (BGA-7) are effective against Cx. quinquefasciatus. On testing at lower concentrations the respective El50 values of the above compounds were found to be 0.4714, 0.3821 and 0.1850 mg/litre, respectively.

The treatment showed various abnormalities in the larvae, pupae and emerging adults as frequently observed in the case of diflubenzuron (a benzoylphenylurea compound) treatment. The compound BGA-11, which differs from diflubenzuron (dimilinR) by a methylene spacer between the benzamido and anilide moieties, was found to be ineffective at the preliminary screening against all the three species tested. Hence, it could be stated that the biologi­ cal activity of the effective parent compound was lost during the incorporation of the methylene spacer. But some structural analogues of the same class of compounds are able to show the biological activity. So, further structural modifications may result in a derivative with optimal biological activity. The insect growth regulating activity of the compounds against Cx. quinquefasciatus in comparison with dimilin is given in Table 2.

The cost analysis of the compounds in comparison to the parent compound dimilin was carried out at the laboratory scale synthesis. The analysis shows that the most effective compound (BGA-7) of the class is ten times cheaper than dimilin. Moreover, this compound could be synthesized at a single stage reaction between hippuric acid and 3-aminobenzotrifluoride, without the involvement of an acid chloride intermediate. A suitable formulation of this compound may play a role in the control of the mosquito vector Cx. quinquefasciatus and thereby the reduction in the diseases transmitted by the same.

Melting points are uncorrected. Purity of the compounds was checked by TLC using pet. ether ethyl acetate (1:1) as irrigant. PMR spectra were recorded in a mixture of CDCl3 and DMSO-d6 on a Hitachi R-600 spectrometer using TMS as internal standard and IR spectra in KBr on a Perkin-Elmer 783 spectrophotometer.

Experimental Procedure

Synthesis

The synthesis of BGA type of compounds with substitution in the methylene spacer was described as an intermediate in the preparation of polypeptides and proteins involving a complex mechanism by condensing four different chemical components such as carboxylic acid, isonitrile, aldehyde and amine. We have modified the pathway for the synthesis of the compounds containing unsubstituted methylene spacer with starting materials as carboxylic acid, glycine and amine, by avoiding the involvement of highly toxic isonitriles. Synthesis of the compounds was carried out by reacting the substituted benzoyl chloride with glycine in alkali. Twelve compounds were synthesized by appropriate substituting the benzoyl and aminophenyl rings. The resultant benzoylglycines were purified by extracting the reaction product with hot carbon tetrachloride to remove the free benzoic acids and recrystallising from boiling water.

The second stage of reaction involved condensation of the benzoyl glycines with an equimolar quantity of an appropriate aniline at 135 ± 5° in an oil-bath for 2 hr using a Dean-Stark phase separator. The product obtained was extracted with hot chloroform followed by washing with 1N hydrochloric acid (3 x 25 ml), water, saturated sodium bicarbonate solution and finally with water. The solvent was removed by distillation and the product recrystallised from a hot mixture of diethyl ether and chloroform (1:1).

Insect growth regulating (IGR) activity against mosquito vectors

Third instar larvae of Culex quinquefasciatus, Aedes aegypti and Anopheles stephensi were obtained from the insectaries maintained at the Centre and used for the evaluation of IGR activity. The compound was dissolved in acetone to get 1% stock solution from which further dilutions were made. To achieve the required concentration, 1 ml of the stock solution of appropriate concentration was added to 249 ml of tap water in 500 ml beaker and stirred vigorously to ensure thorough mixing. Twenty five larvae were added to the test solution by means of a strainer or dropper. The larvae in each beaker were provided with food (yeast powder + dog biscuit). The larvae were exposed continuously till pupation and mortality of larvae and pupae was recorded and removed regularly. Pupae from the treated water were collected in small vials, kept in netted cages and observed for normal emergence, morphological aberrations, incomplete emergence and death.

Synthesis and Pesticidal Activities of Thiadiazolo-s-Triazine and Imidazol

The 1,3,4-thiadiazole ring is associated with diverse biological activities probably by virtue of incorporating a toxophoricts—N = C–S– linkage, the importance of which has been well stressed in many pesticides. Likewise, symtriazine and imidazole derivatives are well known for their herbicidal, insecticidal, bactericidal and fungicidal activities.

These observations coupled with our interest in the synthesis of heterocyclic compounds and the fact that compactness and planarity of a molecule might augment its other biocidal activities as it does with herbicidal activity, the biolabile-s-triazine and imidazole nuclei were fused with 1,3,4-thiadiazole nuclei respectively to yield the titled compounds (Illa-g) and (Va-g) with the hope of achieving compounds of better biocidal action.

The required 2-amino-5-aryloxymethyl-1,3,4-thiadiazoles (la-g) were prepared by the method of Maffii et al. The condensation of la-g with furfural in methanol furnished the compounds Ila-g which were converted into the titled compounds (Illa-g) by 1,4-cycloaddition of phenyl isothiocyanate in xylene. On the other hand treatment of la-g with chloroacetyl chloride in cold furnished the compounds IVa-g which were converted into the titled compounds (Va-g) by stirring with dry pyridine at room temperature (Scheme 1).

Fungicidal activity

All the seven compounds were screened for their fungicidal activity against Aspergillus niger  and Helminthosporium oryzae at 1000, 100 and 10 ppm concentrations. Carbendazim, a commercial fungicide was also tested for comparison. Compounds lIb, c, f and g were found to be promising fungicides while Va-g were nearly inactive. The activity of the compound IIlf (86% at 1000 ppm) was quite comparable with carbendazim (92% at 1000 ppm), and hence further screening of this compound on a wider range of fungi as well as at more dilution is desirable. It is to be noted that all the four compounds (IIb, c, f and g) contain a polar chloro group in the phenyl ring on 1,3,4-thiadiazole nucleus indicating that the presence of halogen atom enhances the fungi-toxicity of this series of compounds.

Bactericidal activity

The antibacterial activity of all the compounds (III and V) evaluated against the bacteria Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis at 1000, 750, and 500 mg/litre concentrations. None of these compounds showed any notable activity except the compound (Illf) which was active against both the species (82% and 80% against S. aureus and B. subtilis, respectively at 500 mg/litre concentration). This shows that association of hydrocarbon residue (CH3) with a chloro group in the phenoxy moiety could enhance the activity.

Herbicidal activity

All the compounds were subjected to primary post-emergent and pre-emergent herbicide evaluation at the rates of 8.0, 4.0, 2.0, 1.0 and 0.5 kg/ ha. The test species were wheat, cocklebur, sunflower, velvet-leaf and sicklepod. None of the compounds except IIlf was found to be promising herbicide. The activity of Illf was found to be 100% at 8.0 kg/ha and 80% at 0.5 kg/ha. Its activity is probably due to the presence of a 2,4-dichlorophenoxy moiety on 1,3,4-thiadiazole ring.

Although, various toxophoric groups and structures have been combined in the titled molecules with a hope of achieving compounds of better biocidal potency, the results are not very encouraging. This indicates that the activity of any compound may not necessarily be related to the numerical sum of all toxophores present in the molecule.

Synthesis and Fungicidal Activity of Thiazolidine and 2-Aryl Indoles  

The synthesis and biological activities of novel heterocycles such as [1,3,4] oxadiazoloquinazolones, [1, 2, 4] triazolothiazoles, [1,3,4] thiadiazoloquinazolones 1,3,4-thiadiazolo-s-triazines, [1,2,4] triazoloquinazolones and [l,3,4] oxadiazolyl-2-azetidinones was reported. ln continuation of our this work we wish to report herein a convenient synthesis of another fused heterocyclic system [1,3,4] oxadiazino [5,6-b] indoles and a novel spiro heterocyclic spiro-[3H-indole-3,2'-thiazolidine]-2,2'(1H)-diones. The fungicidal activity of these compounds is also reported.

The key compounds isatine-b-(aryloxyacetylhydrazones) (I) and isatin-b-(aroylhydrazones) (II) were prepared by condensation of isatine with aryloxyacetylhydrazines and aroylhydrazines, res­ pectively. The cycloaddition of 2-mercaptoacetic acid to I in dioxane furnished the corresponding spiro [3H-indole-3,2'-thiazolidines] (III). The absence of > C = N peak in the IR spectra of III suggested the conversion of I into III. On the other hand, the synthon II on refluxing with aq. KOH furnished the desired compounds, 2-aryl-[1,3,4] oxadiazino-[5,6-b]indoles (III) (Scheme 1).

The absence of -NH and > C = O peaks in the IR spectra of IV suggested the cyclization of II to IV.

Fungicidal activity

Compounds Ila-IIg and IVa-lVg were screened for their antifungal activity against Aspergillus flavus and Helminthosporium oryzae at 1000, 100 ppm and 10 ppm concentrations. The results have been compared with carbendazim, a commercial fungicide, tested under similar conditions.

Compound IIa showed better antifungal activity than IV. However, the activity of II decreased considerably upon dilution. Compounds lIb and IIe were found to show much better activity than any of the compounds of this series. However, compound lIe was more potent than lIb. The activity of II was almost comparable (89% of 1000 ppm) with that of the commercial fungicide carbendazim (97% at 1000 ppm). Further investigation of this compound on wider range of fungi as well as at more dilution is in progress.

Synthesis and Biological Activity of Benzothiazoles/Benzoxazoles/Benzimidazoles/imidazolidines

In view of the fact that a large number of derivatives of thia-zoles, benzoxazoles, benzothiazoles, benzimidazoles and imidazoles have been found to exhibit a wide variety of pharmacological activity and our interest in thiazole nucleus, it was considered worthwhile to synthesize compounds bearing a thiazole nucleus linked to the benzothiazole, benzoxazole, benzimidazole and imidazole nuclei through an NH linkage and evaluate their antifungal and antibacterial activities. Only a limited number of molecules where an NH group is linked to two heterocyclic moieties has been described in literature.

The synthetic route is outlined in Scheme 1. Reaction of 2-amino-4-arylthiazoles (1a-d) with carbon disulphide and methyl iodide in dimethyl-formamide in the presence of strong sodium hydroxide solution gave the corresponding dimethyl N-(4-aryl-2-thiazolyl) dithiocarbonimidodithioates (Ila-d). These compounds (Ila-d) on reaction with 2-aminothiophenol in refluxing dimethylformamide in the presence of one equivalent sodium hydroxide afforded Illa-d in very good yield. The high nucleophilicity of the thiolate anion, generated in the reaction, led the formation of III in good yields and in a short period. In a similar way 2-heteroaryl-amino derivatives of benzoxazoles (IVa-d) were prepared from o-aminophenol and II under nitrogen atmosphere to avoid darkening. In the preparation of V and VI the reaction conditions depended upon the diamine used. With o-phenylenediamine a 1:1 mixture of reactants was heated under reflux until no more methylmercaptan was evolved. The nature of substituents on II affected the reaction period (10-16 hr generally). In case of ethylenediamine a three­fold excess of it was used and the reaction started at room temperature which was completed at 100° after 10-12 hr. Structures of all the compounds were established by elemental analysis and spectral data.

Biological activity

All the compounds were tested for their antifungal and antibacterial activities. The antifungal activity was determined against Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus flavus at 10 and 25,mg/ml concentrations using the modified Czapeck Dox nutrient medium. The antifungal data revealed that all the compounds were mode-rately toxic to the fungal species. Only compounds IIa,b and IIId were comparable with commercial fungicides (Carbendazim and Capta-fol).

The antibacterial activity was evaluated by the cup plate agar diffusion technique at 10 and 25 mg/ml concentrations against E. coli and S. aureus. DMF was used as control in both the cases. All the compounds tested showed only marginal inhibition but better inhibition was observed at 25 mg/ml concentration in comparison to that at 10 mg/ml.

Antimicrobial Agents

The discovery of meconazole, clotrimazole, bifonazole, etc. in the treatment of topical and systemic fungal infections has created a great impetus in imidazole derivatives as antifungal agents. Furthermore, several benzofuran and benzoxazine  derivatives also exhibit marked antibacterial, antimycotic and other pharmacological activities. In view of this, it was considered of interest to synthesize some new l-[(benzofuran-2-yl)(3-oxo-1,4-benzoxazin-6-yl)methyl]-1 H-imidazoles (5a-f) with a view to evaluating their antifungal activity in vitro.

The key starting materials chloroacetylbenzoxazinones (2) were obtained by chloroacetylation of various benzoxazinones (1) under Friedel-Crafts reaction conditions. Condensation of 2 with salicylaldehyde in acetone-K2CO3 afforded the benzofuranoyl-benzoxazinones (3) in good yields. The ketones 3 were reduced to the corresponding carbinols (4) with sodium borohydride in methanol. The alcohols 4 thus obtained were subjected to the imidazole transfer reaction using N,N’-thionylimidazole to obtain the desired imidazole derivatives 5 in fair yields. Two carbinols (4a and 4d) did not undergo the imidazole transfer reaction owing to their poor solubility in dichloromethane. However, these were converted to the respective imidazole derivatives via their chlorides. Thus, the carbinols (4a and 4d) were treated with thionyl chloride to give the corresponding chlorides (6a and 6d) which in turn were treated in situ with imidazole to give the respective imidazole derivatives (5a and 5d) (Scheme 1).

The structures of 3, 4 and 5 were confirmed by their elemental analyses (Table 1) and IR and PMR spectra (see experimental).

Antifungal activity

All the title imidazole derivatives (5a-e) were tested for their antifungal activity in vitro against dermatophytes (Microsporum canis, Microsporum gypseum, Epidermophyton floccosum, Trichophyton rubrum and Trichophyton mentagrophytes), yeasts (Candida Albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans) and systemic fungi (Aspergillus fumigatus and Sporotrichun schenkii) using two-fold agar dilution method according to the method described earlier.

Three compounds in this series (5b, 5c and 5e) were found to possess moderate antifungal activity in vitro and the activity was mainly restricted towards dermatophytes only. Thus, 5c was found to be the most potent compound of the series. It inhibited the growth of all the dermatophytes employed in the screening at 62 mg/ml. However, 5e was active against M. gypseum, T. mentagrophytes and E. floccosum only, with MIC values of 62 mg/ml. Compound 5b was less active as compared to 5c and 5e and the fungi, M. gypseum and E. floccosum only were found to be sensitive towards this compound at 62 mg/ml. All the other dermatophytes were inhibited by 5b and 5e at 125-250 mg/ml.

In addition to the above, compound 5c was also found to possess a low order of activity against systemic fungi by inhibiting their growth at 250 mg/ml. None of the compounds reported herein displayed any significant activity against yeasts at test concentration (250 mg/ml).

Synthesis and Antimicrobial Activities of Pyrazoles

Keeping in view the biological properties associated with pyrazoles, sulphonamides and pyrazoles with sulphamides moiety attached at different positions, it was considered of interest to synthesize some new 1-substituted-5-aryl-3-methyl-4-(N’-substituted p-sulphamylbenzene-azo)pyrazoles (11-26) and 1-substituted 3-(2'-hydroxyaryl)-5-phenylpyrazoles (30-41) as potential antimicrobial agents.

3-(2',4'-Dimethoxy- 3’ -methylphenyl)-1 -methyl-propane-l,3-dione (1) and 3-(2',4'-dimethoxy-6'-methylphenyl)-1-methylpropane-l,3-dione (2) (prepared by the Claisen condensation of 2,4-dimethoxy-3-methylacetophenone and 2,4-dimethoxy-6-methylacetophenone respectively with ethyl acetate in the presence of pulverised sodium) on coupling with diazotised solution of different sulphonamides gave 3-(2',4'-dimethoxy-3'-methylphenyl)- 1 -methyl-2-(N’ -substituted p-sulphamyl-benzeneazo)propane-1,3-diones (3-6) and 3 -(2' ,4' -dimethoxy-6 ‘-methylphenyl)-1 -methyl- 2-(N’-substituted          p-sulphamylbenzeneazo)- propane-1,3-diones (7-10), respectively. These on cyclisation with 4-methylphenylhydrazine hydrochloride and 4-pyridylhydrazide gave 1-substituted-5-(2 ‘, 4‘-dimethoxy-3-methylphenyl)-3-methyl-4-(N'-substituted p-sulphamylbenzeneazo)- pyrazoles (11-18) and 1-substituted-5-(2'-4'-dimethoxy-6'-methylphenyl)-3-methyl-4-(N'-substitutedp- sulphamylbenzeneazo)pyrazoles (19-26) (Table 1).

Similarly, 2-benzoyloxy-4-methoxyacetophenone, 2-benzoyloxy-4-methoxy-3-methylacetophenone and 2-benzoyloxy-4,6-dimethoxyacetophenone (prepared by Schotten Baumann reaction of the corresponding acetophenones with benzoyl chloride in the presence of pyridine) on Baker-Venkataraman transformation in alkaline medium gave w-benzoyl-2-hydroxy-4-methoxyacetophenone (27), w-benzoyl-2-hydroxy-4-methoxy-3-methylacetophenone (28) and w-benzoyl-2-hydroxy-4,6-dimethoxyacetophenone (29), respectively. These b-diketones on cyclocondensation with hydrazine hydrate, phenylhydrazine, 4-methylphenylhydrazine hydrochloride and 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine, gave the corresponding pyrazoles (30-41) (Table 1).

The structures of all the compounds were established on the basis of elemental analysis and PMR spectral data.

Biological testing

All the title compounds prepared were screened in vitro against the bacteria Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas pyocyanea using cup-plate agar diffusion method at 10, 25 and 50 mg/ml concentrations. Compounds 13, 14, 17, 18, 22, 26, 30, 32, 33, 34 and 39 showed moderate activity against both the bacterial species.

These compounds were also screened for their antifungal activity against, Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus flavous using Czapeck Dox nutrient medium at 10, 25 and 50 mg/ml concentrations. Compounds 11, 17, 18, 22, 39 and 41 inhibited the growth of A. niger to the extent of 72.2, 75.3, 80.1, 71.6, 59.1 and 82.3% respectively at 50 ug/ ml concentration. Compounds 11, 17, 18, 39, 40 and 41 inhibited the growth of A. flavous to the extent of 68.4, 68.9, 75.8, 49.5, 59.3 and 88.5% respectively at 50 mg/rnl concentration. Bavistin was used as the standard which showed 88% inhibition under similar conditions.

Experimental Procedure

Melting points were taken in sulphuric acid-bath and are uncorrected. PMR spectra were recorded on a Perkin-Elmer R-32 (90 MHz) spectrometer using TMS as internal standard (chemical shifts in d, ppm).

3-(2’,4’-Dimethoxy-3’-methylphenyl)-1-methylpropane-1, 3-dione (1)

 

Synthesis and Insecticidal Activity of New Substituted Hydroxyacetophenones

Acetophenones have been extensively used recently in the synthesis of different classes of compounds which behave as hypolipidemic, antibacterial and antiinflammatory agents and also as passive cutaneous anaphylaxis (PCA) inhibitors and anti-juvenile hormones. Some of them show photochromism. The insecticidal and other biological activities of thiophosphorylated acetophenones prompted us to synthesise more compounds in this series with the hope of getting insecticides of low toxicity and less harmful effects. We wish to report in this paper the synthesis of 3-(N,N-dialkylaminomethyl)-4-hydroxyacetophenones (4-9) and their corresponding thiophosphorylated compounds. The intra-molecular H-bonding arising due to lone pair of nitrogen and hydroxy group of these compounds has also been discussed.

Chloromethylation of 4-hydroxyacetophenone (1) by the method of Trave gave the corresponding chloromethylated derivative (2) which was converted into different N,N-substituted aminomethyl derivatives (4-9; Table 1) by refluxing with different amines in dry benzene. Compound 2 was also hydrolysed with alkali to get the 3-hydroxymethyl derivative (3). The reaction of O,O-diethylthio-phosphoryl chloride with 3-9 in the presence of acetone and potassium carbonate at room temperature gave the corresponding thiophosphorylated derivatives (11-16; Table 1). The structural assignments of all these compounds were based on elemental analyses, mass IR and PMR spectral data.

In 4-hydroxyacetophenone (1) the carbonyl group is known to appear at a lower frequency! (1635). It was observed that when a chloromethyl or hydroxymethyl side chain was introduced at 3-position, the carbonyl band shifted to 1655 and 1663 respectively. Similarly in 3-(N,N-dialkylaminomethyl) derivatives (4-10) the carbonyl bands appeared at a higher frequency compared to that in 1 (1640). In hydroxy frequency region the bands were observed for both free (3600-3660) and intramolecular bonded (3375-3450) hydroxyl groups in the case of 4, 7 and 9; however compounds 5,6 and 8 exhibited a band for free OH at 3450-3398.

From a study of the carbonyl band frequency of o-hydroxyacetophenone and o-methoxyacetophenone Hergert and Kurth arrived at a conclusion that the increased stability of the dipolar form of o-hydroxy acetophenone and the consequent lowering in vCO band depend upon the greater ability of the hydroxyl group to donate electrons to the ring. Since the carbonyl bands of 2, 3 and 4-9 appeared at different frequencies, it can be expected that the carbonyl group must have different degrees of s-orbital character of the C-O s bond. This in turn gives different force constants of the carbonyl group and thus changes the frequency of nCO.

It is also known that the appearance of nCO at a lower frequency in 4-hydroxyacetophenone compared to acetophenone is attributed to the conjugation of C = O group with unsaturated chromophore11 and stabilization of the consequent dipolar form (1a)10.

Therefore, it is the capacity of the O - Z(Z = H, CH3 etc) group to donate electrons to the ring that finally determines the participation of the carbonyl group in conjugation and consequently the degree of s-orbital character in the above compounds. Thus, it is clear from the above discussion that the capacity of the hydroxyl group in 2-9 to donate electron to the ring is affected.

The formation of intramolecular hydrogen bond in 2-hydroxybenzyl alcohol is well documented12. The formation of intramolecular hydrogen bond in o-halophenols was investigated by Pauling and other workers and it was observed that a strong repulsion between the proton donor and acceptor exists. And from the examination of atomic population and bond order of this class of compounds it was observed that a major part of the electron density shifts from the phenolic proton to the proton accepting halogen. Dietrich has also suggested that in o-halogenophenols the intramolecular interactions are mainly determined by H—halogen (X) interaction in cis-conformer and O—X repulsion in cis- and trans-conformers and the O-H—X angle. Baker and Shulgin  have shown that steric interactions become important in 2-dimethylaminophenol where the methyl groups force the nitrogen lone pair orbital towards the hydroxyl group. Rao have observed that in pyridine-methanol system a slight increase in the electron density of the nitrogen atom occurs due to hydrogen bond formation.

The IR spectra of 2-9 indicated that the 4-OH group forms intramolecular hydrogen bonding with different hydrogen acceptors, i.e. chlorine in 2, oxygen in 3 and nitrogen in 4-9. It is expected that depending upon the steric factors. O–H—X angle and basicity of the hydrogen acceptor, the degree of intramolecular hydrogen bond changes which in turn affects the acidity of the phenolic O — H group and consequently its capacity to donate electron to the ring.

4-Hydroxy-3-(N,N-diphenylaminomethyl)aceto-phenone (9) exhibited two intense bands at 3600 and 3375 due to free and intramolecular hydrogen bonded OH respectively. From the intensity of the free hydroxyl bond it can be assumed that due to the two bulky phenyl rings, the less bulky free electron pair orbital points in such a way that it is not available as an acceptor in hydrogen bonding. Therefore, it is assumed that 9 exists as an equilibrium mixture of 9a, 9b. 9c and 9d. Similarly compounds 4-8 also exist as equilibrium mixtures of forms a-d.

In both 6 and 9 the carbonyl band appears near the VC–O frequency of 4-hydroxyacetophenone(l), i.e. at a lower frequency (1652 and 1650 respectively) compared to that in 4, 5, 7 and 8, because the strong electron-donating (towards the ring) capacity of O–H group is in these two cases are not affected much by small intramolecular hydrogen bonding.

The formation of six-membered ring-B through hydrogen bond may cause certain rigidity in the molecules (4-9). From the PMR spectra (Table 2) it can be observed that in compounds 4-8 the H-2 doublet appears at a higher field than the doublet of doublets (dd) for H-6, but the trend reverses in compounds 10-14 where the intramolecular hydrogen bonding is removed by methylation or thiophosphorylation of the 4-OH group. Therefore, the upfield shift of H-2 proton must arise from the steric effect of either the benzylic methylene protons or from the groups attached to nitrogen atoms. When Dreiding models for 4,5,6 and 9 were constructed, it was found that both the rings A and B remained almost on the same plane. The two alkyl groups and the two benzylic protons remained one each above and below the plane of the rings A and B. There was a probability that the b-alkyI group might come over the H-2 proton and cause steric hindrance resulting in the upfield shift of the latter. Therefore we examined the model for a rigid system in 7 [N(R)=piperidino] and found that both rings A and B were almost planar and the b-equiterial proton of a-carbon atom to nitrogen could not exert any influence on the H-2 proton. Thus, the steric hindrance on H-2 and the resulting upfield shift of its PMR signal must arise from the two benzylic methylene protons with which it is making an angle of about 60°.

To confirm our above views we examined the PMR spectra of 6-acetyl-2-methoxy-4H-1,3,2-benzodioxaphosphorine-2-sulphide (17) and 2-methoxy-6-nitro-4H-1,3,2-benzodioxapho-sphorin-2-sulphide (18) and found that there also the H-2 proton doublet appeared at a higher field compared to doublet of doublets for 6-H. On examining the model for 17 or 18 it was found that in these models the ring-A and the two oxygen atoms of ring-B remained on the same plane and the H-2 proton was making an angle of about 60° with the two benzylic methylene protons as in 4-9.

From the structural point of view, the compounds 2-9 have an sp3 carbon. atom between the aromatic ring and the proton acceptor X to minimise the delocalization between OH and X and does not make much impact on the dipole moment.

The 3-chloromethyl and 3-hydroxymethyl compounds (2 and 3) were found to be insoluble in CDCl3 and their PMR were recorded in acetone-d6. It was observed that unlike in 4-8, the H-2 proton doublet in 2 and 3 appeared at a lower field compared to H-6 proton in the PMR spectrum. Since 2 and 3 also form hydrogen bonding with chlorine or oxygen atom of 3-substituted side chain, it was expected that H-2 proton would appear at a higher field compared to H-6 as in 4-8. To examine the solvent effect of acetone-d6, we recorded the spectrum of 4 in this solvent and found that H-2 proton appeared at a relatively higher field compared to H-6 (see Table 2). Further, there was no difference in the pattern of the PMR spectrum from that recorded in CDCl3. Although it is premature at this stage to predict, without knowing in detail about the intramolecular hydrogen bonding in compounds 2-4 and the solvent effect of acetone-d6 on them, we would like to suggest that the downfield shift of H-2 proton in 2 and 3 might arise from the electronegative chlorine or oxygen atom of the side chain.

Insecticidal activity

All the compounds (4-16) were screened for their insecticidal activity against Drosophila melanogaster (vinegar fly) by residue film evaporation method.at 1%, 0.5% and 0.2% concentrations. The mortality was observed after 24 hr. The screening results, recorded in Table 3, show that almost all the thiophosphorylated compounds (11-16) have significant insecticidal activity. Rest of the compounds have either poor or no activity.

Further, the screening results clearly indicate that the activity of compounds 11-16 lies only in the organophosphorus part of the molecules. Since, the 4-methoxy derivative (10) did not exhibit any appreciable activity, it was clear that the 4-OH group as such or the hydrogen bonding caused by it did not contribute to the insecticidal properties of the compounds. Similarly, the nitrogen part of the molecule was also proved ineffective because compound 15 showed the same activity as 11-14 and 16.

Syntheses of Sulfanilyl Derivatives

The present study forms part of our program on the chemistry of aromatic sulfonyl derivatives and their evaluation as candidate pesticides. A survey of the literature reveals that not much work has been reported on N4-(alkyl or aryl sulfonyl) sulfanilyl derivatives.

Reaction of o-dichlorobenzene with excess chlorosulfonic acid in boiling chloroform, gave the 3,4-dichlorobenzenesuIfonyl chloride in 57% yield as compared with 81% reported earlier. Similarly m- and p-dichlorobenzene on reaction with excess of chlorosulfonic acid with or without the solvent afforded 2,4- and 2,5-dichloro-benzene-sulfonyl chlorides respectively in very good yields (80-90%). These dichlorobenzenesulfonyl chlorides, on condensation with excess aniline, gave the corresponding dichloro-benzenesulfonanilides. Further reaction of these anilides with warm excess chlorosulfonic acid under the conditions employed for the successful chlorosulfonation of the analogous, dichlorobenzoic acid anilides caused N — S bond cleavage to give the corresponding dichlorobenzenesulfonyl chlorides. However, when the reaction was carried out at lower temperature (-10° to 10°), good yields (65-85%) of the dichlorobenzenesulfonyl sulfanilyl chlorides (1, 8. 19) (Scheme 1) were obtained (cf. ref. 5). With sulfonylanilides, N —S bond cleavage was observed when chlorosulfonation was carried out at temperatures above 10°, although similar chlorosulfonation of carboxylic acid anilides occurred at 50-60° without appreciable

N-S bond cleavage.

The difference in behaviour is presumably largely a reflection of the greater strength of the C—N bond (184kcal/mol) as compared with the N-S bond (111 kcal/mol). N4-(2,4 Dichlorobenzene-sulfonyl)sulfanilyl chloride (1) was condensed with nucleophiles such as dimethylamine and hydrazine under standard conditions to give the derivatives (2,3). The hydrazide(3) was treated with acetone and benzaldehyde to afford the hydrazones (4, 5). The hydrazides (3, 11, 21) on refluxing with acetylacetone in ethanol for 3 hr furnished the 3,5-dimethylpyrazole (6). 1 on reaction with sodium azide gave the azide (7), which on treatment with triethyl phosphite (Imol) in toluene at 0° furnished the phosphinimine (8). The 2,5-dichlorosulfanilyl chloride (9) was similarly reacted with nucleophilic reagents to give the derivatives (10-16,18); the aziridine (17) was obtained by reaction of the azide (15) with norbornene(1 mol)in toluene for 6 hr (cf. ref. 8b). Analogous reactions of 3,4-dichlorosulfanilyl chloride (19) gave the derivatives (20-25).

Attempts to prepare N4-acetamidobenzene-sulfonylsulfanilyl derivatives (Table 1) via the chlorosulfonation of N4-acetylsulfanilyl anilide by treatment with excess chlorosulfonic acid failed. However, reaction of N4-acetylsulfanilyl chloride with the dimethylamine, morpholine and sodium azide gave the N4-acetylsulfanilyl derivatives which were deacetylated with hydrochloric .acid to give the corresponding sulfanilyl compounds. Thus N4-acetylsulfanilyl-dimethylamide was deacetylated to N,N-dimethylsulfanilylamide (50%), PMR(DMSO-d6): d 7.20-6.56 (m, 4ArH), 5.90 (s, 2H, NH2, exchangeable with D2O), 2.05 [s, 6H, N(CH3)2]; N4-acetylsulfanilyl-morpholidate to the morpholidate12 (58%), PMR (DMSO-d6): d 7.40-6.60(m, 4ArH), 6.0 (s, 2H, NH2 exchangable with D2O), 3.6-2.8 (m, 8H, morpholino H) and N4-acetylsulfanilyl azide to the azide (61%). These were condensed with N4-acetylsulfanilyl chloride to afford the required products (26,27,30) (Table 1). The condensation could be carried out either in the presence of triethylamine in acetonitrile or sodium hydrogen carbonate in acetone; the latter system afforded a higher yield of a purer product. The azide (30) was obtained by the condensation of N4-acetylsulfanilyl chloride with sulfanilyl azide (1 mol) in the presence of sodium bicarbonate (1 mol) in aq. acetone for 3 hr. This, on reaction with triethylphosphite (1 mol) in toluene at 80° for 1 hr gave (31) and on treatment with norbornene (1 mol) in boiling THF for 6 hr furnished the aziridine(32). Acetone and benzaldehyde sulfanilyl hydrazones reacted with N4-acetylsulfanilyl chloride in pyridine to give low yields of the required products (28, 29).

Methanesulfonanilide on treatment with excess chloro-sulfonic acid at —10" to 10" gave N4-(methanesulfonyl)sulfanilyl chloride (Table 1, 33) which was characterized as the derivatives (34-39). Reaction with aniline afforded N4-(methanesulfonyl)- sulfanilylanilide, which like the corresponding N4-acetyl derivative, failed to form the sulfonyl derivatives with chlorosulfonic acid, under conditions successfully used for the dichlorobenzene and methyl sulfonanilides (Table 1). However, benzenesulfonanilide with excess chlorosulfonic acid at -10° to 0° gave the corresponding sulfonyl chloride (54%).

In the PMR spectra of the dichloro- and acetamido benzene sulfonylsulfanilyl compounds (Table 1), the lowest field proton resonance is assigned to the SO2NH group due to the combined anisotropic effect of the two attached benzene rings, e.g. the acetone hydrazones (4,28). In the methane sulfonyl series (Table 1), the methylsulfamoyl proton appears at the lowest field and the SO2NH — N proton resonance is merged with the aromatic proton resonances, e.g. compound (37), which is confirmed by the disappearance of part of the aromatic multiplet after treatment with deuterium oxide. The mass spectra of the compounds generally showed the molecular ions (M+), and fragment ions corresponding to M-X, M-SO2X, and M -NHC6H4SO2X. In the acetamido series (Table 1) cleagage of the acetamido group was also observed.

Biological activity

Antibacterial screening was carried out by innoculation of agar plates as described by Steers et al. and the results were compared with penicillin as standard (100% control). The in vitro antifungal screening was performed using the standard glass slide spore germination test as described by Kirby and Frick.

In the preliminary in vitro antibacterial screening tests against Streptococcus faecalis, Clostridium perfringens, and Staphylococcus aureus at 50ppm, compounds 5, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20 showed complete inhibition of the bacteria. The compounds were also screened against Botrytis cinerea in vitro at 50ppm, high activity was observed for compounds 4,12, 26, 36. Compounds were examined against Rhizoctonia solani and Pythium aphanodermatum in vivo by soil incorporation at 16 kg/ha, the best antifungal activity was shown by the azides (7, 24, 30).

Qsar of Fluridone

At least eight chemically different classes of herbicidal inhibitors have been demonstrated to affect phytoene desaturase as their essential mode of action. At the moment, qualitative and/or quantitative structure-activity correlations (QSAR) are available only for five groups, namely phenoxybenzamides, phenylpyrida-zinones phenylfuranones and phenoxynicotinamides. For a better understanding of the essential structural elements of a phytoene-desaturase inhibitor and favorable substitution patterns more structure-activity investigations with chemically different inhibitors are needed.

The phenylpyridinone, fluridone (1-methyl-3-phenyl-5-(3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl-(1H)-pyridinone), belongs to the same type of bleaching herbicides as indicated above. In a preceding publication it has been demonstrated that this compound directly interacts with phytoene desaturase as a reversible noncompetitive inhibitor. In the present study our attempts are continued to analyze the structural requirements of typical phytoene-desaturase inhibitors. Accordingly, a range of fluridone derivatives have been investigated for their inhibitory activity either in vivo or in vitro. Furthermore, quantitative structure-activity relations have been calculated for fluridone analogs substituted at position 3 of the pyridinone ring.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Aphanocapsa (= Synechococcus PCC 6714) was cultivated for 48 hr. Freshly harvested algal cells grown in the presence of bleaching compounds were directly used for carotenoid extraction or membrane preparation. Fusarium SG 4 mycelium grown for 5 days as described was freeze-dried and stored at - 15°C. Carotenoids were extracted with hot methanol (20 min, 65°C) and partitioned into 10% (v/v) diethyl ether/petrol. Total carotenoids were quantitated from this extract by their absorbance at 445 nm and related to dry weight of cells. I50 values for intact cells were determined by a Dixon-type plot with 5 to 7 concentrations around the l50 value.

For in vitro carotenogenesis, Aphano-capsa cells were resuspended in 0.1 M tris(hydroxymethyl)-aminomethane (Tris)-HCl buffer, pH 8.0, containing 5 mM dithiothreitol (DTT), and broken in a French press at 500 bar.

After centrifugation (12,000g, 15 min), the membrane pellet was resuspended in the same buffer. Fusarium SG 4 extracts, which form [14C]geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate from [14C]mevalonic acid, were obtained by suspending 0.1 g of powdered material in 0.8 ml of 0.4 M Tris-HCl buffer, pH 8.0, containing 5 mM DTT, and centrifugation (10.000g, 10 min). The incubation mixture contained 0.2 ml of this supernatant, 0.1 ml of Aphanocapsa (thylakoid) mem­ branes equivalent to 0.15 mg of chlorophyll, ATP (5 mol), NAD+ (1 mmol), Mn2+ (3 mmol), and Mg2+ (2 mmol) made up to a total volume of 0.5 ml with water. The reaction was terminated after 2 hr by addition of 2.5 ml of methanol containing 6% KOH. After saponification for 20 min at 65°C, the carotenoids were partitioned into 10% (v/v) diethyl ether/petrol and separated by HPLC. The system used was a 25-cm Spherisorb ODS-1 5 mm column with iso-cratic elution with acetonitrile/methanol/ propanol (85:10:5; v/v) at a flow rate of 1 ml/min. Radioactivity of the elution peaks was determined by a radioactive flow detector Ramona LS (Raytest, Strauben-hardt, Germany). Inhibition ratios (IR) for incubations with a certain inhibitor concentration were calculated from the ratio of radioactivity accumulated in phytoene versus radioactivity in b-carotene, related to the corresponding ratio of an untreated control (4-3). In a previous publication this value has been verified as a suitable in vitro parameter for QSAR. i50 and IR values are the means of three to five experiments. The standard deviation was in the range of 10%.

Details on the phenylpyridones employed including the procedure of their synthesis are given elsewhere. Quantitative structure-activity analysis was carried out with R.A. Coburn’s multiple linear regression program, QSAR-PC, from Biosoft. Physicochemical parameters (Hansch-Fujita hydrophobicity constants p and Hammett para constants sp) were provided by the data base of this program, except for the -C6H4F-p substituent which were estimated by comparison with the data for similar substituents. The Hammett para constants are derived from pka values of substituted benzoic acid.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

As it has been established, that most bleaching herbicides target the same enzyme reaction of questions about common structural elements in the bleaching molecules and about their interaction with the same or a similar inhibition site may be brought closer to an answer by modification of their structures and comparing their inhibitory properties. In case of phenylpyridinones two sets of derivatives could be investigated. For all compounds of Table 1, I50 values of bleaching activity have been determined from decreased contents of colored carotenoids in the cells. The most active compound was fluridone (no. 1). Replacement of the -CF3 group by less lipophilic -Cl (no. 2) moderately decreased its activity and replacement by -COOH (no. 8) decreased it strongly. Inhibitory activity disappeared completely when one of the phenyl rings was missing and the aromatic nature of the pyrimidinone ring was lost simultaneously (nos. 10, 11). Replacement of one of the phenyl rings by phenoxy (no. 6) resulted in lower but substantial inhibition. Modification of the fluridone molecule from a N-methyl to its N-ethyl derivative (no. 5) was also accompanied by a negative effect on its bleaching activity. When the pyridinone ring of fluridone was completely saturated, the resulting piperidinone (no. 4) still showed reasonable activity with an I50 value of about 25 mm. The structure of this compound allows for a keto-enol equilibrium. In this case, a charge separation between the heterocyclic nitrogen (positive) and the oxygen (negative) can be imagined, which might exert an additional effect on the inhibitory activity.

From the results of Table 1 it can be concluded that the aromatic nature of the pyridinone structure influences the level of activity but is not essential for the fluridone derivatives to interact as inhibitors of phytoene desaturase. Apparently, both phenyl rings at positions 3 and 5 are favorable. It has recently been reported for phenyltet rahydropyrimidines, which contain a non-aromatic ring structure similar to a fluridone-related piperidinone, that at least one of the two phenyl rings is essential for activity. As an N-ethyl group instead of N-methyl strongly affects the inhibitory activity in a negative way, the bulkiness of certain substituents and the overall shape of the substituted pyridinone moiety seems to be an important feature to influence herbicidal activity.

With respect to the substitution of the keto group at position 4 by other heteroatoms, a replacement by — OCH3 increased the I50 value of the resulting pyridylium cation (no. 7) by a factor of about 100. A similar decrease of activity was observed for - N(CH3)2 (no. 3). A thione group (no. 9) or even -Cl (no. 12) led to very weak inhibition or to a compound which had lost all its inhibitory activity. These results are difficult to interpret. However, there seems to be a tendency of decreasing inhibitory activity depending on how strongly electrons are withdrawn from the heterocyclic nitrogen. Furthermore, electron density on the various substitutents at position 4 could exhibit an additional influence on activity.

All compounds in Tables 2 and 3 differ by a variation of the phenyl substituent at position 3 of the pyridinone ring. For this series of derivatives, I50 values with intact Aphanocapsa cells and the in vitro IR have been determined. These values have been compared to physicochemical parameters for the corres-ponding substituents and lipophilicity p and their electronic properties sp were found to be important.

Only one compound, the C6H4F-p analog, showed slightly better inhibitory activity than fluridone. All other substituents were less effective (Table 2). The dominant factor which determines their inhibitory properties is lipophilicity. A plot of pI50 versus it gave a good linear relationship with a correlation of 0.99 (Fig. 1A). However, the -OC6H5 analog did not fit into this relationship. This might be due to the bulkiness of this group which has e.g., a B2 STERIMOL constant of 3.11 as compared to 1.71 for a phenyl group.

In a multiple regression analysis, lipophilicity p and the electronic parameter sp as independent variables gave a significant contribution to explain pl50. The resulting QSAR equation is given in Table 4A. The validity of the regression was confirmed by an F test and the significant contribution of both independent variables by a t test. Other parameters of the substituents did not improve this calculation.

In order to elucidate the relevance of the results from this QSAR analysis for the interaction of the pyridinone inhibitors with their target site, the phytoene desaturase, in vitro inhibition of the compounds of Table 2 was determined. For this purpose, the 10 compounds had to be divided into high-and low-activity groups. Then, the inhibition ratios have been measured for fixed concentrations of 0.3 and 10 mM, respectively (Table 3). Again, a dependency of inhibitory properties on lipophilicity could be demonstrated. The log IR from the first group gave a very good (r = 0.98) linear correlation with lipophilicity -p (Fig. 1B). As shown for in vivo inhibition (pI50 values of Fig. 1A), the -OC6H5 analog is an outlier and does not fit into this correlation.

Interference of Fluridone

Fluridone was one of the first developed bleaching herbicides and has been successfully used during the last 15 years for weed control in cotton. Its primary mode of action is inhibition of carotene interconversion at the level of phytoene. This colorless carotene is accumulated together with phytofluene in leaves after fluridone treatment, and formation of b-carotene is impaired. As a consequence of the decreased levels of colored carotenoids, chlorophyll is destroyed and disruption of the chloroplast structure is observed in the light.

Accumulation of phytoene in the presence of fluridone indicates inhibition of the desaturation reaction. Direct interaction with phytoene desaturase at the enzyme level has been reported for several other bleaching herbicides and also for fluridone. It is a goal to find common features as well as differences of the known bleaching herbicides that interfere with phytoene desaturase. Helpful information may be obtained by comparing their binding sites, looking at their types of inhibition, and performing structure-activity investigations with chemically modified compounds. Increasing our knowledge of inhibitor-enzyme interaction may facilitate rational design of new potent phytoene desaturase inhibitors. In this context, the present publication concentrates on an enzyme-kinetic study of fluridone inhibition of phytoene desaturase from Aphanocapsa. The results obtained allow the type of inhibition exhibited by this herbicide to be determined. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that Aphanocapsa membranes represent a good assay system for in vitro ki determinations of different substituted fluridone derivatives with a broad range of inhibitory activity.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Aphanocapsa 6714 (= Synechocystis PCC 6714) and Fusarium SG 4 were cultivated for 48 hr and 5 days, respectively, as described. Carotenoids were extracted from harvested cells by suspending them in methanol containing 6% KOH and then heating them for 20 min at 60°C. This step and subsequent ones were all carried out in very dim light and under nitrogen, if possible. Carotenoids were partitioned into 10% (v/v) diethyl ether in petrol (bp 35-80°C). Total carotenoids were determined from this extract by absorbance at 445 nm and calculated with an average extinction coefficient  of 2500. Subsequently, the carotenoid extracts were evaporated to dryness, resuspended in acetone, and sub­ jected to HPLC separation. The reversed-phase HPLC system employed a Spherisorb ODS-1 5 mm column 25 mm in length and an isocratic solvent system of acetonitrile/methanol/2-propanol 85/10/5 (v/v/v) (7) with a flow rate of 1 ml/min. Carotenoids were identified with appropriate standards. Chlorophyll was extracted with hot methanol from cells in a manner similar to that used for carotenoids. Then, chlorophyll was quantitated spectrophotometri-cally according to Mackinney.

In vitro carotenogenesis was carried out with membranes from Aphanocapsa prepared by French-press treatment (500 bar) of cells suspended in 0.1 M Tris(hydroxy-methyl)aminomethane (Tris)-HCI buffer, pH 8.0, containing 5 mM dithiothreitol (DTT). Membranes were collected by centrifugation (12,000g, 15 min) and resuspended in the same buffer to a final chlorophyll concentration of 1.5 mg/ml. [14C]Geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate, the substrate for the Aphanocapsa membranes, was generated from [14C]mevalonic acid by a preparation from the fungal mutant Fusarium SG 4. Two hundred milligrams of powdered mycelium was mixed with 1.6 ml of 0.4 M Tris-HCl buffer, pH 8.0, containing 5 mM DTT, and centrifuged for 10 min at 10.000g. Together with the Aphanocapsa membrane suspension (0.15 ml), 0.1 ml of the supernatant (3 mg protein/ml) was used in the incubation mixture which additionally contained K-[2-l4C]mevalonic acid (0.5 mCi), ATP (5 mol), NAD+ (1 mmol), Mg2 + (2 mmol), and Mn2+ (3 mmol) in a total volume of 0.5 ml. Herbicides were applied in 5 ml methanol. The kinetics of Fig. 2 show that, in a first step, [14C]geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate was formed by preincubation of Fusarium SG 4 extracts with [14C]mevalonic acid and all cofactors present for 2 h. Varied amounts of the resulting crude geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate solution were used as substrate for the subsequent phytoene desaturase reaction with Aphano­capsa membranes. The reaction was terminated after 2 h by addition of 2.5 ml of methanol and 0.3 ml of 60% KOH solution. Heating, partitioning, and HPLC separation were done as described above for unlabeled carotenoids. The radioactivity in the phytoene and b-carotene peaks was de­ termined on-line with the radioactivity monitor Ramona LS (Raytest, Straubenhardt, Germany). As the Aphanocapsa membranes catalyze a reaction sequence from geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate to b-carotene with phytoene as the only detectable intermediate, the sum of radioactivity in phytoene + b-carotene accumulated over the total reaction period was used as the substrate concentration value and the radioactivity in b-carotene as the product value. Binding of [14C]fluridone (6.68 mCi/mmol) was carried out by incubation of Aphanocapsa membranes in 0.1 M Tris-HCl buffer, pH 8.0, with 0.1 nmol of radioactive herbicide in a total volume of 1 ml for 1 h. After centrifugation (10,000g, 10 min), residual radio-activity was determined from the supernatant. Then the pellet was resuspended in 0.5 ml of the same buffer, and centrifugation was repeated.

The data in Tables 1 and 2 are means from three experiments, the standard deviation is ± 10%. In Figs. 1 to 3 data of typical experiments are shown. The carotenogenic activity of the membranes used for them may vary from one preparation to another. However, the overall picture and the bio­chemical information is always the same. The km values calculated from Fig. 2 and the ki values from Fig. 3 are very reproducible with standard deviations of less than 10% from three to five determinations. The herbicidal compounds used in this study are fluridone ( = EL-171; 1-methyl-3-phenyl-5-(3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-4(1H)-pyridinone), compound A (1-methyl-3-(3-(ethylacetyl)phenyl)-5-(3-(trifluoromethyl)-phenyl)-4(1H)-pyridinone), and compound B (1-methyl-3-phenyl-2,3-dehydropiperidi-none.

RESULTS

Application of the herbicide fluridone to cultures of the cyanobacterium Aphanocapsa resulted in a decrease of all the major colored carotenoids present in this organism. Depending on the fluridone concentration of up to 1 mM, the acyclic glycoside myxoxanthophyll, b-carotene and its hydroxylated and keto derivatives zeaxanthin and echinenone, all decreased more or less to the same extent (Table 1). With the highest herbicide concentration used, only 20% of the colored carotenoids of the control were retained. Simultaneous to the decrease of total colored carotenoids, phytoene, found at a very low level in the control, accumulated. At least at low concentrations of fluridone (0.1 mm), which only moderately affect colored carotenoids, the sum of colored carotenoids plus phytoene is similar to the control value. From the values of total colored carotenoids, a ki, value in the range of 0.2 mM was estimated. In addition to the decrease in carotenoids, lower levels of chlorophyll were observed in the presence of various concentrations of fluridone.

Direct interference of fluridone with phytoene desaturase was demonstrated in the in vitro experiment of Fig. 1. [l4C]Gera-nylgeranyl pyrophosphate is converted by Aphanocapsa membranes and the labeled products of the carotenogenic pathway detected were phytoene and b-carotene exclusively. The results are in parallel with the in vivo data. With increasing concentrations of fluridone less radioactivity was found in b-carotene and more radioactivity was accumulated in phytoene. The nature of this inhibition of phytoene desaturase by fluridone was analyzed by enzyme kinetic studies and is presented in a Lineweaver-Burk plot (Fig. 2). The substrate was varied and the radioactivity in the reaction product was determined in three sets of experiments: one as a herbicide-free control, the two others with different concentra-tions of fluridone. For all of them, straight lines were obtained in this double-reciprocal plot with a common intersection at the abscissa which corresponds to noncompetitive nature for fluridone interaction. It is difficult to determine a km value for a heterogenous enzyme reaction. In our case, a suspension of membranes, in which the desaturation takes place and in which phytoene is generated, is employed. As the site of substrate conversion and product formation is exclusively in the Aphanocapsa membranes, the packed volume of the membranes per incubation was determined as 12 ml. Based on this value, a km value of 0.3mM was calculated for phyotene.

To find out whether fluridone binding is reversible, binding and replacement experiments were carried out with 14C-labeled herbicide (Table 2). Phytoene desaturase is located in the thylakoid membranes. Therefore, an amount of fluridone with a radioactivity of about 1500 dpm was added to various amounts of thylakoid membranes that were quantitated by their chlorophyll content. Depending on the quantity of thylakoids, up to 30% of fluridone was bound. Reversibility of the binding was shown by washing the radioactive fluridone from the membranes. One wash released about 85% of the radioactive fluridone and a second wash released the rest of the bound fluridone.

For the noncompetitive and reversibly bound fluridone and two other pyridinone derivatives, ki values have been determined by a Dixon plot of inhibitor concentration versus inverse product formation at a constant substrate concentration (Fig. 3). The intersections of the straight lines with the abscissa gave a ki value of 0.08 mM for fluridone and 0.4 mM for compound A which carries an ethylacetyl group at position 3 instead of the unsubstituted phenyl ring. In the case of compound B in which both the 3-phenyl ring and the 3,4-double bond are lost, inhibitory activity is ex­ tremely low with a ki value of about 100 mM.

Absorption and Metabolism of Clomazone

Clomazone is a selective biopesticide used in soybean to control certain grass and broadleaved weeds. Clomazone is thought to inhibit an early step in the synthesis of terpenoids resulting in the absence of chlorophyll, carotenoids, and other terpenoids. Specifically, clomazone has been observed to inhibit either isopentenyl pyrophosphate isomerase or prenyl transferase, resulting in failure to produce plastidic terpenoids. However, clomazone inhibition of isopentenyl isomerase and prenyl transferase has not been observed in a different study. Past research has shown that both tolerant and susceptible plant species have the capacity to metabolize clomazone. Therefore, clomazone detoxi-cation does not appear to account for soybean tolerance to the herbicide. Selectivity to clomazone has been speculated to involve either differential bioactivation of clomazone by sensitive species or differences of clomazone sensitivity at the site of action.

Although metabolism of clomazone has been studied in plants and plant cells, characterization of the metabolites produced is lacking. In seedlings of both soybean (tolerant) and velvetleaf (susceptible), we have demonstrated that clomazone metabolism occurs by oxidative cleavage followed by the benzyl moiety conjugating with glucose.

Cell cultures have been used to evaluate absorption and metabolism of herbicides in plant cells, and results have usually correlated well with observations made in intact plants. Advantages of cell cultures for this research were the uniform exposure of the cells to herbicide, absence of translocation, the relative high capacity of the cells to produce clomazone metabolites for iden­ tification purposes, and the possible absence of clomazone phytotoxicity in heterotrophic cells. The objectives of this study were to characterize the absorption and metabolism of clomazone by suspension-cultured cells of soybean and velvetleaf and to characterize the major metabolites produced.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Chemicals. Analytical clomazone (99.0% purity), [14C]CAR-C1 (1.04 GBq/mmol; 98% purity), [14C]MET-C (1.15 GBq/mmol; 98% purity), 5-OH-clomazone, and 5-keto-clomazone were provided by FMC Corp. 2-CBA and b-glucosidase were purchased from Sigma Chemical Co.

Cell culture. Cell suspension cultures of soybean (cv. Corsoy 79) and velvetleaf were established and cultured in a modified Gamborg B5 medium as described previously (8). Medium consisted of Gamborg B5 major and minor salts supplemented with 0.3, 2.0, 0.6, and 100 mg liter–1 of kinetin, IAA (indole-3-acetic acid), picloram (4-amino-3 ,5 ,6-trichIoro-2-pyridinecarboxcylic acid), and myoinositol, respectively, and 25 g liter–1 sucrose. Suspension cells, established from callus produced from hypocotyl sections of each species, were subcultured every 14 days and grown on a rotary shaker at 25°C and 125 rpm.

Clomazone absorption and metabolism. Past research had indicated that clomazone metabolism may occur, in part, by oxidative cleavage. Therefore, we utilized two 14C labels of clomazone to follow each half of the clomazone molecule. MET-C and

CAR-C labeled the benzyl and hetero-cyclic moieties of the clomazone molecule, respectively. Soyabean and velvetleaf cells (10-12 days after subculturing) were treated with either 1 mM MET-C or 1 mM CAR-C. Preliminary experiments indicated that ex­ posure to 1 (M clomazone for 14 days had no effect on the growth of either soybean or velvetleaf heterotrophic cells. Aliquots of 20 ml (containing 0.8-1.2 g fresh wt of cells) were taken at 1, 3, 6, 12, 24, and 48 hr after treatment. Cells were collected by vacuum filtration on glass-fiber filter discs (What­man GF/A, VWR Scientific, Chicago, IL) and immediately rinsed with 10 ml of ice-cold incubation medium containing 1 mM unlabeled clomazone to remove unab-sorbed [MC]clomazone. Cells were collected again by vacuum filtration. Cell fresh weights were determined and 4 ml 100% methanol was added. Cells were stored at -20°C prior to homogenization. Ten milliliters of 80% methanol was added and cells were homogenized using a Ten-Broeck homogenizer.

Homogenized cells were prepared for chromatographic analysis as described previously. The homogenate was filtered through a glass-fiber filter. The filtrate was concentrated by evaporation under a stream of N2 gas at room temperature and filtered through a 0.2-mm-pore fluoropolymer membrane (Arco LC13, Gelman Sci­ ences, Inc., Ann Arbor, MI). Radiolabel remaining in the aqueous, suspension-cell up­take medium (30 ml) was partitioned three times against 20 ml CH2Cl2. The CH2Cl2 phases were combined, a subsample was taken from both the aqueous and the CH2Cl2 phases, and the radioactivity present was determined by LSS. The remaining CH2Cl2 phase was evaporated to dryness in vacuo at 30°C and precipitates were dissolved in 1.5 ml methanol prior to chromatographic analysis.

Radiolabel remaining in the cellular debris was determined by oxidation and collection of I4CO2 Radioactivity collected was quantified by LSS. In all cases greater than 85% of the applied radioactivity was recovered.

Metabolite characterization. Cells were homogenized and [14C]extracted as described above. Methanol was removed in vacuo at 35°C and the aqueous concentrate (adjusted to 20 ml H2O) was partitioned three times with 15 ml CH2Cl2 (nonconjugate fraction). The three CH2CI2 phases were combined for I4C analysis. The aqueous phase (Polar I) was concentrated to 2 ml in vacuo at 50°C. Five milliliters of 0.1 M Na-acetate buffer (pH 5.0) containing 50 U b-glucosidase (E.G. 3.2.1.21) was added to cleave (b-1,6-sugar conjugates. After incubation for 12 hr at 37°C, another 50 U of b-glucosidase was added. Following incubation at 37°C for another 12 hr, the aglycones were partitioned into CH2Cl2 (3 x 25 ml). The remaining aqueous phase (Polar II) was adjusted to pH 1.5 with 1 N HCl and partitioned immediately against CH2Cl2 (3 x 25 ml). All CH2Cl2 phases were individually evaporated in vacuo at 30°C to dryness. Samples were dissolved and stored in 0.5 ml of methanol prior to chromatographic analysis.

Chromatographic analysis. Separation of clomazone and clomazone metabolites was done using HPLC with a H2O/acetonitrile gradient and a C,8 reverse-phase HPLC column. Gradient steps were: (a) 0 to 20% acetonitrile from 0 to 15 min, (b) 20 to 50% acetonitrile over the next 5 min, (c) 50% acetonitrile for the next 13 min, (d) 50 to 95% acetonitrile over the next 5 min, and (e) 95 to 0% acetonitrile over the next 5 min. Fractions were collected at 1-min intervals and radioactivity was determined by LSS. With this solvent system, clomazone and 2-CBA had retention times of 31.2 and 25.5 min, respectively.

GC/MS data on HPLC-purified metabolites were obtained using a Varion 5890 gas chromatograph coupled to a Finnigan MAT ITD 800 ion trap detector mass spectrometer. The GC was equipped with a fused silica capillary column 15 m long by 0.25 mm i.d. containing a 0.25-mm bonded phase of Durabond-5 (J and W Scientific, Folsom, CA). The GC column was coupled directly to the ion trap manifold through the transfer line. The transfer line was maintained at 280ºC. The linear velocity of helium through the column was 26 cm sec–1. Splitless injections of 1 ml were made at an injection port temperature of 280°C. The GC oven was maintained at 50°C for 4 min and was increased at 6°C min–1 to a maximum of 300°C. The multiplier voltage was set at 1450 V. The ion trap detector was repetitively scanned from 50 to 450 amu in 1.0 sec.

Statistical analysis. All experiments were conducted twice with at least two replications of each treatment per experiment. Analysis of variance were performed on data expressed as nmol g–1 fresh wt. Means were compared with Fisher’s least significant difference test.

Results

Clomazone uptake and metabolite retention. Cells of both soybean and velvetleaf retained more total radioactivity when treated with MET-C than with CAR-C (Figs. 1A-1D). Retention of I4C increased in both soybean and velvetleaf over time. Soybean treated with MET-C initially had higher concentrations of radiolabeled compounds than did velvetleaf cells, but by 48 hr velvetleaf had higher concentrations than did soybean. Compared to velvetleaf, soybean cells treated with CAR-C had slightly higher concentrations of I4C compounds at all times except 48 hr.

Clomazone metabolism. Soybean cells treated with MET-C had clomazone concentrations of 0.7 to 1.0 nmol g–1 fresh wt throughout the experiment (Fig. 1A). Al­though the metabolite concentration increased over time, clomazone was metabolized more rapidly from 0 through 6 hr than from 6 through 48 hr.

Velvetleaf cells treated with MET-C had clomazone concentrations from 0.1 to 0.3 nmol g–1 fresh wt (Fig. IB). This was lower than for soybean cells treated with MET-C. Metabolite concentration in velvetleaf cells increased at a constant rate through 24 hr. A decrease in the rate of metabolite accumulation was observed between 24 and 48 hr. The metabolite concentration made up a higher percentage of total labeled compounds in velvetleaf cells than in soybean cells (93% versus 82% at 48 hr, respectively).

Soybean cells treated with CAR-C had clomazone concen-trations similar to those observed with soybean cells treated with MET-C (0.7 to 1.0 nmol g–1 fresh wt) (Fig. 1C). However, the metabolite concentration was lower than that observed for MET-C soybean cells. Thus, the percent­age of labeled metabolites in CAR-C soybean cells was lower than that observed for MET-C-treated soybean cells (55% versus 82% at 48 hr, respectively).

A similar difference between MET-C-and CAR-C-treated cells on uptake and metabolism was observed with velvetleaf (Figs. IB and ID). Clomazone concentrations were equal between CAR-C and MET-C velvetleaf cells; however, CAR-C-treated cells had lower metabolite concentrations than MET-C-treated cells. Thus, as was observed in soybean cells, velvetleaf cells treated with CAR-C had a lower percentage of radiolabel as metabolites when compared to cells treated with MET-C (85% versus 97% at 48 hr, respectively).

Extracellular metabolites. Both MET-C-and CAR-C-treated cells of soybean and velvetleaf had detectable levels of metabo­lites in the media (Fig. 2). However, greater amounts of water-soluble clomazone metabolites were present in the media of CAR-C-treated cells than in MET-C-treated cells of both velvetleaf and soybean. Concentrations of metabolites in the media increased over time. No differences in the amounts of extracellular clomazone metabolites were observed between soybean and velvetleaf treated with MET-C.

Metabolite characterization. Soybean and velvetleaf cells produced the same clomazone metabolites based on HPLC elu-tion profiles (Fig. 3). Because velvetleaf metabolized clomazone more rapidly than soybean did (Fig. 1), higher concentrations of total metabolites were observed in velvetleaf than in soybean (Table 1). However, the differences in percentage distributions of the clomazone metabolites, if observed, were small between soybean and velvetleaf cells whether they were treated with CAR-C or MET-C (Table 1).

All of the metabolites were more polar than clomazone (Fig. 3). Velvetleaf produced higher concentrations of H2O-soluble (Polar I) metabolites than soybean did (Table 2). Since more H2O-soluble metabolites leaked out of the CAR-C-treated cells than the MET-C treated cells (Fig. 2), lower amounts of H2O-soluble metabolites were detected in the cells of each species with CAR-C than MET-C treatments.

A majority (>85%) of the radiolabel present in the nonconjugate fraction (initial CH2Cl2 phase) was clomazone for both soybean and velvetleaf cells. Confirmation of the identity of clomazone in this fraction was demonstrated by HPLC and mass spectral analysis. Mass spectra (El) of the isolated products from the different cells and labels were nearly identical to clomazone reference standard (Fig. 4). Characteristic molecular (M+) and base peak ions were observed at m/z 240 and m/z 125, respectively. Clomazone may also lose Cl to give (M-Cl) m/z 204. The other minor metabolite had a retention time of 22 min and was present in both MET-C and CAR-C cells of soybean and velvetleaf.

Antidote Mode of Action

Studies have suggested that antidotes (safeners) for chloroacetamide herbicides protect crops by inducing glutathione conjugation of these herbicides. Antidote activity has been correlated with enhanced herbicide metabolism and with en­hanced glutathione S-transferase (GST)2 activity. Until recently the levels of parent herbicide and metabolites in tissues of plants grown in soil had not been assayed, raising the question of whether enhanced herbicide metabolism played a role in antidote action in vivo, and if so, whether enhanced metabolism was the primary mechanism of antidote action.

The first study in this series indicated that BAS 145-1383 (BAS) protected corn (Zea mays L.) from metazachlor injury by reducing the concentration of parent metazachlor in growing tissues, especially in the developing leaves. This decrease was attributed to (i) enhanced metabolism of metazachlor, (ii) decreased mobility of [14C]metazachlor and/or its metabolites, and (iii) slightly decreased absorption of metazachlor. The enhanced metabolism was not measured directly but was suggested as an explanation for the reduced amount of parent [14C]metazachlor as a percentage

of  total  radioactivity in BAS-treated corn tissues .

The decreased mobility and absorption of radioactivity observed in BAS-treated corn plants does not rule out the possibility that enhanced metabolism may be the primary or sole mechanism of antidote action. The reduced mobility of radioactivity in BAS-treated plants could be due to the reduced levels of parent metazachlor, since the parent is more mobile than the metabolites, and especially the conjugates, of most herbicides. The reduced absorption of metazachlor could also be the consequence of reduced levels of parent metazachlor (i.e., the consequence of enhanced metazachlor metabolism) in BAS-treated corn plants, since chloroacetamide herbicides inhibit cuticular wax development and since herbicide absorption can be increased by herbicide treatments that inhibit cuticle development  (or conversely, herbicide absorption may be decreased by treatments such as BAS that decrease levels of chloroacetamide herbicides in plant tissues). Preservation of cuticle development by a herbicide antidote has been previously reported. Thus, we evaluated the possibility that the reduced mobility and absorption of radioactivity in corn plants treated with BAS and [14C]metazachlor were the consequence of enhanced metazachlor metabolism.

Corn cultivars DeKalb XL-25A and XL-55A were not effectively protected from EPTC by the antidote, dichlormid. Since dichlormid and BAS protect corn from metazachlor to the same extent  and since both antidotes are dichloroacetamides, it seemed likely that these corn varieties would not be effectively protected from metazachlor injury by BAS. Dean el al. have further noted that the two major GST isozymes induced by the dichloroacetamide antidote, CGA-154281 [4-(di-chloroacetyl)-3,4-dihydro-3-methyl-2H-1,4-benzoxazine], appeared to have activity on both chloroacetamide (metolachlor) and thiocarbamate (EPTC) herbicides. Further­more, wheat seemed likely to be poorly protected from metazachlor by BAS because wheat has not been reported to be protected from chloroacetamide herbicides by dichlormid. If our hypotheses were correct, the reduced antidote responses could be verified using wheat and the two corn varieties, thereby allowing us to determine whether the decreased antidotal activity was also correlated with an altered effect on herbicide metabolism.

Experiments were conducted to further investigate the significance of metabolism, mobility, and absorption of metazachlor in the mode of action of BAS. The objectives of this study were to (i) directly assay the rate of metazachlor metabolism in the growing tissues of corn seedlings; (ii) evaluate metazachlor phytotoxicity and metabolism in plants with reduced responses to dichloroacetamide antidotes, including certain corn cultivars and wheat; (iii) evaluate the mobility of metazachlor metabolites; (iv) evaluate the effect of metazachlor and BAS treatments on subsequent metazachlor absorption in corn; and (v) evaluate the effect of BAS on glutathione (GSH) levels and GST activity.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

General

Experiments were conducted with corn cultivar Northrup King PX9144 unless otherwise indicated. Corn was grown in soil as previously described  at 21°C with incorporated treatments of 0 or 5 parts per million by weight (ppmw) metazachlor and 0 or 1 ppmw BAS. Metazachlor at 5 ppmw inhibited corn growth and BAS at 1 ppmw prevented most of this inhibition. [14C]Metazachlor [pyrazol-U-14C, sp act 11.6 mCi/mmol (1.55 MBq/mmol)] was used in all studies. All experiments were repeated.

[14C] Metazachlor metabolism studies

Four-day-old unemerged seedlings having shoots 3.0 to 4.5 cm long were removed from the soil and washed with water, and 2-cm root or apical shoot sections were excised. Fifteen root sections (0.30-0.35 g) or six shoot sections (0.40-0.45 g) were placed in 18 x 70-mm test tubes and pulse-labeled for 30 sec by vacuum infiltration with 2.5 ml of aqueous 5 mM [14C]metazachlor. The shoots and solution were stirred gently with a vortex mixer during vacuum infiltration. After vacuum infiltration, the [14C]metazachlor solution was immediately removed by aspiration and the tissue was rinsed three times with 3-ml portions of water. The water rinses were also removed by aspiration and the moist tissue was incubated in the original test tubes at 25°C for the indicated periods. After the incubation, the sample was frozen on a  dry ice-acetone bath and stored at -20°C. Samples were ground with a polytron in 3.5 ml of 70% acetone and filtered through Whatman No. 3 filter paper. The polytron and filter were sequentially rinsed with 3.5 ml of’35% acetone and 3.5 ml of water. Extracts were partitioned three times with 10 ml of methylene chloride. The 14C in the aqueous phase of partitioned extracts was shown by thin-layer chromatography to be metabolites of [14C]metazachlor and the 14C in the methylene chloride phase was confirmed to be parent [14C]metazachIor. Radioactivity in the two phases was quantified by liquid scintillation spectrometry. There were two replications per treatment.

Effect of BAS on Metazachlor Metabolism in Excised Tissues

Four studies were conducted:

Effect of metazachlor concentration. Plants were grown in soil treated with 5 ppmw metazachlor and 0 or 1 ppmw BAS. These treatments were chosen both here and in the time course (below) because they were the same as those used in the previous study. The effect of [ 14C]metazachlor concentration (0.5-50 mM) during the pulse-label period on the rate of metazachlor metabolism was evaluated using a 30-min incubation.

Effect of soil treatments. Plants were grown in soil treated with 0 or 5 ppmw metazachlor with or without 1 ppmw BAS or 1 ppmw dichlormid. The 0 ppmw metazachlor treatment was included so that the effect of the antidote alone could be evaluated. Metazachlor metabolism in shoots and roots was evaluated using a 30-min incubation.

Time course. Plants were grown in soil treated with 5 ppmw metazachlor and 0 or 1 ppmw BAS. Atime course for metazachlor metabolism in shoots and roots was conducted for incubation periods ranging from 1 to 60 min.

Comparison of shoot tissues. Plants were grown in soil treated with 0 or 1 ppmw BAS. Metazachlor was omitted from the soil treatment in this experiment because metazachlor caused the leaves to adhere tightly to the coleoptile, thus making the dissection difficult. The shoot was cut at the coleoptile node, a 2-cm section of mesocotyl was excised, and the leaves were dissected from the coleoptile. Six shoots were dissected per replication. Metazachlor metabolism was evaluated separately for each tissue.

Effect of BAS on Metazachlor Phytotoxicity at  Metabolism in Three  Corn  Cultivars and Wheat.

Growth studies were conducted with three corn cultivars, Northrup King PX9144, DeKalb XL-25A, and DeKalb XL-55A, and one wheat cultivar, Olaf. Fifteen corn seeds or 25 wheat seeds were planted in vermiculite and grown under conditions previously described. Treatments were applied in the initial watering solution. Metazachlor was applied at concentrations ranging from 0 to 300 mM for corn and from 0 to 10 mm. for wheat. BAS was applied at 0, 1, or 10 mm. Treatments which contained both metazachlor and BAS were applied as a single solution. Shoot height was evaluated 12 days after planting for corn cultivars Northrup King PX9144 and DeKalb XL-25A and 13 days after planting for corn cultivar DeKalb XL-55A and wheat. Untreated plants were at the two-leaf growth stage at the time of harvest. There were two replications of each treatment.

Metabolism studies were conducted using separate plants grown as described above and treated with 0,1, or 10 mM BAS. Northrup King PX9144 seedlings were 4 days old and other seedlings were 5 days old at the time of evaluation; all seedlings were evaluated prior to emergence. Metabolism of [14C]metazachlor in apical shoot sections was evaluated as described above except that the incubation period was 15 min and 15 apical shoot sections of wheat (approximately 0.40 g) were used.

Mobility of Metazachlor Metabolites.

Corn seedlings were grown for 3.5 days at 21°C in vermiculite treated with 0 or 2 mM aqueous BAS. Metazachlor was omitted because of the previously described difficulties it causes in dissection. Seedlings with 2.5- to 4-cm-long shoots were removed and washed. Five seedlings were placed in a 50-ml test tube for each replication. Seedlings were pulse-labeled by submerging and aerating them in 25 ml of aqueous 5 mM [14C]metazachlor for 12 min. Seedlings were rinsed three times with 25 ml water, placed between layers of moist germination paper with the shoots protruding, and incubated at 21°C under an inverted 800-ml beaker lined with moist paper towels to maintain a high humidity. The germination paper was changed at 0.5, 1, 2, and 4 hr to minimize reabsorption of parent [l4C]metazachlor  that may have diffused into the germination paper. The shoots were dissected into coleoptile, leaves, and mesocotyl. The tissues were weighed and frozen after 4 and 36 hr. Tissues were analyzed for parent metazachlor and metabolites as previously described. There were two replications of each treatment.

In a second experiment, the ability of metazachlor metabolites to diffuse out of corn shoot apical sections into water was evaluated. Corn shoot apical sections were excised, pulse-labeled with [14C]metazachlor, and incubated for 30 min, as described for studies of metabolism in excised shoot tissues. This was followed by a 30-min incubation in 5 ml water to allow diffusion of metazachlor and metabolites out of the shoot. The levels of parent metazachlor and metabolite in corn tissue and water were  analyzed  as  described  for  metabolism  studies.

Effect of BAS and Metazachlor on [14C] Metazachlor Absorption.

Corn was grown in soil treated with 0 to 15 ppmw metazachlor and 0 or 1 ppmw BAS. Four-day-old unemerged seedlings with shoots 3 to 4.5 cm long were removed from the soil, washed, and placed between moist paper towels. Each seedling was placed in a 5 ml scintillation vial and treated with 10-1.5ml droplets containing 10 mM aqueous [14C]metazachlor (no organic solvent present). Five droplets were applied to the coleoptile and five were applied to the mesocotyl. Treated seedlings were incubated for 10 min under an inverted 800-ml beaker lined with moist paper towels to maintain high humidity. The shoot was then rinsed for 5 sec under a stream of acetone and 5 sec under a stream of chloroform to remove cuticular waxes and any associated  14C. The shoot was excised and absorbed radioactivity was determined by oxidation and liquid scintillation spectrometry. There were three seedlings per replication and three replications per treatment.

Effect of BAS on GSH Levels and GST Activity.

Corn was grown in soil treated with 0 or 1 ppmw BAS. GSH was assayed using equine GST and the substrate 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene as previously described (6). There were three replications for each treatment. GST was assayed as previously described with minor modifications. GST assays were conducted at 30°C and the reaction was started by adding [14C]metazachlor (5 mM final concentration). Enzymatic activity values were corrected for nonenzymatic and Time 0 controls. There were two replications for each time point.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Effect of BAS on Metazachlor Metabolism in Excised Tissues

Effect of metazachlor concentration. The concentration of [14C]metazachlor used for pulse-labeling did not significantly affect metazachlor metabolism in excised shoots when expressed as percentage of 14C absorbed, nor did metazachlor concentration affect the differences between antidoted and control treatments (Fig. 1). Results with roots were virtually identical (data not shown). The 5 mM metazachlor concentration was used in all subsequent studies.

Effect of soil treatments. BAS and chlormid increased the rate of metazachlor metabolism in corn shoots (Table 1). This correlates with the protection from metazachlor injury conferred by these two antidotes. Metazachlor soil treatment slightly increased the rate of [14C]metazachlor metabolism in corn shoots whether or not BAS was present in the soil. The effects of BAS and metazachlor treatments on metazachlor metabolism in the roots were similar to the effects in shoots (data not shown). The effect of dichlormid on roots was not evaluated. A similar stimulation of the metabolism of the chloroacetamide herbicide metolachlor by itself was previously reported.

Time course. Metazachlor was metabolized rapidly in unantidoted shoot and root tissues of corn but metabolism was even more rapid in tissues grown in BAS-treated soil (Fig. 2). The half-life of metazachlor was 58 and 14 min in roots (Fig. 2A) and 33 and 13 min in shoots (Fig. 2B) from unantidoted and antidoted plants, respectively. This is consistent with the previous dissection and growth studies which showed that BAS protected both roots and shoots and indirectly indicated that BAS enhanced the rate of metabolism of metazachlor in both tissues.

Comparison of shoot tissues. BAS soil treatment enhanced [14C]metazachlor metabolism in the coleoptile, developing leaves, and mesocotyl (Fig. 3). It appears that the effects of BAS on metabolism are not tissue specific. This suggests that metabolism of metazachlor in tissue adjacent to the developing leaves, i.e., the coleoptile and mesocotyl, could reduce the amount of metazachlor reaching the leaves and that the leaves themselves could further decrease the level of metazachlor present in BAS-treated plants. This corresponds with measurements of metazachlor levels in corn plants grown in soil, in which BAS reduced the level of metazachlor in the mesocotyl, coleoptile, and leaves.

Effect of BAS on Metazachlor Phytotoxicity and Metabolism in Three Corn Cultivars and Wheat

All three corn cultivars showed substantial increases in the concentration of metazachlor required for 50% inhibition of growth (I50) as the BAS concentration increased from 0 to 10 mM (Table 2). These increases in tolerance were associated with increases in metazachlor metabolism rate. Wheat was much less tolerant of metazachlor than corn, as indicated by the lower I50 values for wheat. Wheat also was not protected from metazachlor by BAS, as indicated by the constant  I50 values as BAS concentration increased. Metazachlor metabolism rates were correspondingly slower in wheat and these rates did not increase as BAS concentration increased (Table 2).

The corn cultivars, DeKalb XL-25A and XL-55A, were protected from metazachlor by BAS, contrary to our previously discussed expectation (see Introduction). It is possible that the previously reported apparent lack of dichloroacetamide antidote activity in these two corn cultivars is not repeatable, since no indication was given of the number of plants evaluated, the number of replications, the variability, or whether the experiment was repeated. The data reported here indicate that the level of antidotal activity is correlated with the rate of herbicide metabolism. When there is no antidotal activity, as in the case of wheat, there is likewise no effect of the antidote on herbicide metabolism rate (Table 2).

Mobility of Metazachlor Metabolites

[14C]Metazachlor absorbed by corn shoots should be almost entirely metabolized within 4 hr because it has a half-life of only 33 min or less (Fig. 2). Therefore, if metabolites are immobile, as we have proposed, radiolabel should not move after 4 hr, even if a concentration gradient exists.

Most [14C]metazachlor was converted to metabolites in corn seedlings after incubation for 4 hr (Table 3). A strong concentration gradient (dpm/mg) of metabolites was present at 4 hr among the three tissues evaluated; the coleoptile had the highest concentration and the developing leaves had the lowest concentration. The concentration of radioactivity (dpm/mg) declined between 4 and 36 hr in all tissues as a result of growth but the concentration gradients remained. The total amount of radioactivity (dpm) remained constant in these tissues between 4 and 36 hr despite the concentra­tion gradient. Similar results were obtained in both untreated and BAS-treated plants (Table 3). Thus, it appears likely that the glutathione conjugate of metazachlor and its short-term catabolic products are relatively immobile.

In a second experiment, the ability of metazachlor and its metabolites to diffuse out of corn shoot apical sections into water was also evaluated. Only 2.2% of the metabolites present in corn shoots diffused into water, versus 14.7% of the parent metazachlor. This observation also suggests that metazachlor metabolites are less mobile than the parent. The plasmalemma and/or tonoplast presumably act as barriers to movement of polar metabolites.

Effect of BAS and Metazachlor on [14C]Metazachlor Absorption

As the rate of unlabeled metazachlor applied to the soil increased, the amount of [14C]metazachlor absorbed increased (Fig. 4). BAS reduced the effect of soil-applied metazachlor on [14C]metazachlor absorption, but when no metazachlor was applied to the soil (i.e., at 0 ppmw metazachlor in Fig. 4). BAS did not decrease absorption. This suggests that BAS reduced absorption indirectly; perhaps metazachlor alone inhibited synthesis of cuticular waxes, and BAS prevented this effect by enhancing the detoxification of metazachlor. These obser-vations are consistent with previous reports that chloroacetamides inhibit cuticular wax development, that herbicide-treated plants absorb more herbicide and that antidote treatment maintains cuticular wax integrity in the presence of the herbicide. These observations are consistent with the hypothesis that the apparent slight BAS-induced decrease in metazachlor absorption previously observed in corn seedlings grown in the soil actually represented protection from a metazachlor-induced increase in [14C] metazachlor absorption.

Effect of BAS on GSH Levels and GST Activity

Metazachlor is metabolized to the glutathione conjugate in corn. An antidote that induces metazachlor metabolism might do so either by increasing GSH levels or by increasing GST activity.

Untreated and BAS-treated corn shoots contained 3.0 and 3.1 (mmol GSH/g fresh wt, respectively. Thus, the antidote had no significant effect on GSH levels.

GST activity was low in extracts of plants grown in untreated soil (Fig. 5), suggesting that a significant portion of metazachlor metabolism observed in untreated plants may be nonenzymatic. However, the relative importance of enzymatic and non-enzymatic metabolism in unantidoted corn remains inconclusive because the concentration of the enzyme in the assay was diluted 70-fold compared to its concentration in vivo, and because some loss of activity could have occurred pr