1. DEFINITION OF SPICES AND CONDIMENTS
Nomenclature or Classification of Spices and Condiments
Brief History of Spices
First International Search for Indian Spices
Role of the ICAR in Spice Development in India
Spices Enquiry Committee
Indian Central Spices and Cashewnut Committee
Review of Researches on Cashewnut and 14 Spices
Setting-Up of the Central Plantation Crops Research Institute (CPCRI), Kasaragod
All-India Co-Ordinated Spices and Cashewnut Improvement Project (AICSCIP), Segregated to - ‘All-India Co-Ordinated Improvement Project for Spices (AICIPS)
Main Attainments of the Project (AICSCIP)
Segregation of AICSCIP into 2 Projects on ‘Cashew and ‘Spices’
National Research Centre for Spices (NRCS, ICAR 1986)
The Indian Institute of Spices Research (1995), Calicut
Krishi Vigyan Kendra
Other Organizations Involved in Spices Development.
Division of Plant Introduction (IARI) and National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources
Role of Department of Agriculture and Co-Operation, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India
Directorate of Arecanut and Spices Development
Spices Development Council, Department of Agriculture and Co-operation
Agmark Laboratories and Directorate of Marketing and Inspection (DMI)
Role of the Cftri and other CSIR National Laboratories in the Technological Spice Development Programmes
Spices Export Promotion Council, Cochin
Cardamom Board
Functions of the Cardamom Board
Spices Board, Govt of India
Spices Cess Act
Indian Cardamom Research Institute
International Spices Decelopment Activities
International Pepper Community (IPC), Jakarta, Indonesia
International Working Group on Spices (IWGS)
Development of International ISO Standards for Spices and Condiments and their Processed Products as well as their Methods of Test (ISO : TC 34/SC 7)
World Trade Organization (WTO)
Recommended Action Plans
Importance of Individual Spice Requirements
Trends in Individual World Markets
Forms of Spices and Spice Products Traded
Concluding Remarks : The Challenges for the Indian Spice Industry
Productivity Challenge
Quality Challenge
Value-Addition Challenge
Equity Challenge
2. ORGIN, PROPERTIES AND USES OF SPICES
Ajowan
Ajowan Contains Calcium and Iron
Allspice
Anise/Aniseed
Annatto
Asafoetida/Asafetida
Basil
Bay/Laurel Leaf
“Other” Bay Leaves
Indian Bay Leaf
West Indian Bay Leal
Indonesian Bay Leaf
Boldo Leaves
Caper
Caraway
Cardamom/Cardamon
Celery
Chervil
Chile Peppers
Chives
Cinnamon
Cloves
Coriander
Cumin and Black Cumin
Dill and Dillweed
Epazote
Fagara/Szechwan Pepper
Fennel Seed
Fenugreek
Galangal/Galangale/Galingale
Garlic
Ginger
Juniper
Kaffir Lime (Leaf, Fruit)
Kari Leaf
Lemon Balm
Lemon Verbena
Lemongrass
Lovage
Mace
Marjoram
Mints: Spearmint and Peppermint
Mustard
Myrtle
Nigella
Nutmeg
Onion
Oregano
Paprika
Parsley
Peppers: Black, White, Green, Long/Pippali, CUBEB
Poppy Seed
Rosemary
Saffron
Sage
Sassafras
Savory
Screw-Pine Leaf/Pandanus Leaf
Sesame
Sorrel
Star Anise
Sumac
Tamarind
Tarragon
Thyme
Turmeric/Tumeric
Wasabi
Zeodary
3. FORMS, FUNCTIONS AND APPLICATIONS
OF SPICES
Introduction
Spice Forms and Composition
Fresh whole Spices
Dried Spices
Spice Extractives
Essential (Volatile) Oils
Oleoresins (Non-Volatiles and Volatiles)
Other Extractives
The Functions of Spices
Primary function of Spices
Flavor, Aroma and Texture
Coloring Properties
Secondary Functions of Spices
Spices as Preservatives
Emerging Secondary Function of Spices
Spices as Medicines
Spice Preparation
Global Equipment used in Spice Preparation
Spice Applications
Marinades, rubs and Glazes
Spice Blends, Seasonings and Condiments
Spice Quality and Specifications
International Standards and Specifications
Maintaining Spice Quality
Fumigation
Controlled Atmosphere Storage
Sterilization
4. TRENDS IN THE WORLD OF SPICES
Trends in foods and spices
Understanding and Effectively Meting the Growing Demand for Authenticity
Authentic Ethnic Ingredientds
Spices and Flavorings of Popular Authentic Ethinc Cuisines
Authentic Ethnic Flavorings
Authentic Preparation and Cooking Techniques
Presentation Styles
Fusion and Regional American Flavorings
Fusion Flavors
Regional American Flavors
5. YIELD AND NUTRIENT UPTAKE BY SOME SPICE CROPS GROWN IN SODIC SOIL
Introduction
Materials and methods
Results
Effect of Fertilizer
Nutrient Concentration and Uptake
Amelioration of Sodic Soil
6. TISSUE CULTURE AND IN VITRO CONSERVATION OF SPICES
Introduction
Cardamom
Clonal Multiplication
Regeneration of Plantlets from Callus
Inflorescence Culture
Black Pepper
Clonal Multiplication
Callus Cultures and Regeneration of Plantlets
Micropropagation of related species of Piper
Ginger
Clonal Multiplication
Regeneration of Plantlets from Callus
In Vitro Selection
Turmeric
Micropropagation
Plant Regeneration from Callus
Vanilla
Micropropagation
Saffron
Micropropagation
Tree spices
Micropropagation
In Vitro Proliferation of Mace and Synthesis of Flavour Components in Culture
Seed and herbal spices
Production of secondary metabolites
Synseed technology
In vitro Conservation of Spices Germplasm
Protoplast Isolation and Culture
Genetic Transformation
Isolation of DNA and Studies on Biochemical/molecular Markers
Conclusion
7. IN VITRO PROPAGATION OF BLACK PEPPER (PIPER NIGRUM L.)
Introduction
Materials and methods
Results
8. IN VITRO RESPONSES OF PIPER SPECIES ON ACTIVATED CHARCOAL SUPPLEMENTED MEDIA
Introduction
Materials and methods
Results and Discussion
9. TISSUE CULTURE STUDIES ON TREE SPICES
Introduction
Materials and methods
Results
Clove
10. MICROPROPAGATION OF SOME IMPORTANT
HERBAL SPICES
Introduction
Materials and methods
Explants
Results
In Vitro Seed Germination
11. SOIL-AGRO CLIMATIC PLANNING FOR SUSTAINABLE SPICES PRODUCTION
Introduction
Agro-climatic Zonations-concepts and Backgrounds
Delineations of Agro Eco Region (AER) and Agro Eco Sub Regions (AESR)
Characteristics of Spice Growing Soi’s in Different Agro Eco Sub Regions
Bengal Basin-hot, Moist Subhumid Eco sub Region (Q8Cm7).
Sustainability of Agriculture
Potentials
Future Strategy
Water Management
Nutrient Management
12. WATER MANAGEMENT OF SPICE CROPS
Introduction
Irrigation
Rain Water Management (Conservation and Storage)
Irrigation Water Management
How to Get Water for Irrigation
How to Irrigate and Manage the Water
Summary
13. POTENTIALS OF BIOTECHNOLOGY IN THE IMPROVEMENT OF SPICE CROPS
The Potentials of Techniques Related to tissue culture
Somatic Embryogenesis
Organogenesis
Micropropagation
Secondary metabolites from cell cultures
In Vitro Germplasm Conservation
The Potentials of Genetic Engineering : Gene and Genome Analysis Techniques
Genetic Manipulation by Gene Technology
Agrobacterium Mediated Gene Transfer
Gene Transfer by Electroporation
Gene Transfer by Microprojectile Bombardment
Gene Marker and Genome Analysis Techniques
Non-PCR Based Marking Technique: Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism
Arbitrary/semiarbitrary Primer Based PCR Techniques
Site Target PCR Technique
Marker Assisted Selection
14. SPICES IN AYURVEDA
Ayurvedic concept of Tri-Dosha
Dosha Related Elements
Effect of Spices on Tridosa
Tips from Grandmas’ remedies using spices
Cardamom
Turmeric
Asafoetida
Chilli
Cinnamon Bark
Dry Ginger
Mustard
Seed Spices
15. MEDICINAL APPLICATIONS OF SPICES AND HERBS
16. THE HEALING TOUCH OF SELECT SPICES
Garlic
Mustard
Cassia
Capsicum
Caraway
Asafoetida
Pepper Mint
Basil
Fennel
Kokam
Opium poppy
Aniseed
Tamarind
17. MEDICINAL PROPERTIES AND USES OF SEED SPICES
Coriander
Fenugreek
Fennel
Cumin
Ajwain
Celery
Dill (Sowa)
18. IN VITRO MICRORHIZOME PRODUCTION IN FOUR CULTIVARS OF TURMERIC (CURCUMA LONGA L.) AS REGULATED BY DIFFERENT FACTORS
Abbreviation
Introduction
Materials and methods
In Vitro Shoot Culture
Results
In Vitro Shoot Culture and Plant Regeneration
Role of sucrose, BA and photoperiod and their interaction in microrhizome formation
Harvesting, Storage Ami Germination of Microrhizome
19. ENHANCEMENT OF GENETIC VARIABILITY IN CHILLI (CAPSICUM ANNUUM L.)
Introduction
Materials and methods
Result
20. BREEDING OF INDIAN PAPRIKA FOR HIGH-VALUE ADDITIONS “ORGANIC COLOUR” AND “OLEORESIN”
Introduction
Materials and methods
Results
21. USE OF COIR COMPOST AS A COMPONENT OF NURSERY MIXTURE FOR SPICES
Introduction
Materials and methods
Results
Experiment -I Effect of Terra Care as Substitute for Soil/Sand/ EYM in Conventional Potting Mixture on Growth of Black Pepper Cuttings
22. EFFECT OF SOIL SOLARIZATION ON CHILLIES (CAPSICUM ANNUUM L.)
Introduction
Materials and methods
Results
23. SUPERCRITICAL FLUID EXTRACTION OF SPICES
24. INDIAN SPICE EXTRACTION TECHNOLOGY
Introduction
Indigenous Technology
Steam Distillation
Solvent Extraction
25. SPICE OIL AND OLEORESIN FROM FRESH/DRY SPICES
26. ONFARM POST HARVEST TECHNOLOGY FOR PLANTATION SPICES
(a) Cardamom
(b) Large cardamom
(c) Vanilla
(d) Pepper
(e) Cloves
(f) Nutmeg and Mace
(g) Cinnamon
Conclusion
27. BULBOUS SPICES
Onion
Indian Names
Description, Distribution and Economic Importance
Types of Onions
Varieties
Quality Parameters of a Good Variety
New Varieties Released
Crop Management
Climate
Soil and its Preparation
Rotation
Propagation
Irrigation
Interculture and Weeding
Roguing
Manuring
Importance of Nutritional Elements
Harvesting
Yield
Seed Production
Plant Protection
Marketing
Preparation for Market
Grading
Composition
Storage
Packaging
Post-harvest Handling
Marketing Within the Country
Factors Affecting Efficient Storage
How to Reduce Storage Losses in Onions
Processed Products
Quality Parameters of White Onions for Dehydration Purposes
Dehydration of Onion
Onion Powder
Onion Salt
Uses
28. GARLIC
Indian Names
Description and Distribution
Varieties
Quality Parameters for Garlic Bulbs for Breeding/
Production
New Varieties
Crop Management
Soil and Climate
Manurial Requirements
Seed Rate and Sowing Methodology

Harvesting
Yield
Diseases and Insect Pests
Tissue Culture of Garlic
Marketing
Smoking
Packaging
Grading
Curing, Packaging and Storage
Curing
Packaging
Storage
Control Measures for Rubbering, Sprouting and Bulb Splitting Disorders
Composition
Commercial Forms of Dehydrated Garlic
Garlic Powder-An Improved Patented Process
Odourless Garlic Powder
Garlic Salt
Oil of Garlic
Garlic Oleoresin
Transport
Uses
Garlic as Condiment
Garlic Oil as Insecticide
Garlic Paste/Mixture as Biofungicide
Garlic Oil as an Adhesive
Garlic Residue with Antibacterial Properties
Garlic in Medicine
Garlic Use for Cancer
In Human Nutrition
Leek/ Stone Leek Welsh Onion
Indian Names
Description and Distribution
Soil and Climate
Varieties
Crop Management
Raising Nursery/Transplanting
Manuring
Seed Production
Harvesting
Plant Protection
Composition
Post-Harvest Technology/Processing
Uses
Shallot
Indian Names
Description and Distribution
Crop Management
Uses
29. SEED SPICES
International Trade
More Recent International Trade
Future Prospects
Ajowan or Bishop’s Weed
Indian Names
Description and Distribution
Area, Production and Export
Varieties/Selections
Crop Management
Climate and Soil
Cultural Practices
Diseases and Pests
Post-Harvest Technology
Grading
Composition
Adulterants
Packaging and Storage
Processed Products
Essential Oil
In Medicine
Comparative Antimicrobial Activity of Seed Spice Essential Oils
Aniseed
Indian Names
Description and Distribution
Varieties
Crop Management
Post-Harvest Technology
Composition/Quality
Quality Standards
Packaging
Storage and Transport
Processed Products
Distillation of Oil
Caraway, Black Caraway or Siah Zira
Indian Names
Description and Distribution
Caraway
Black Caraway
Area, Production and International Trade
Crop Management
Soil and its Preparation
Manuring/Fertilization
Methods and Time of Sowing
Intercropping
Interculture
Irrigation
Harvesting and Threshing
Yield
Plant Protection
Harvesting
Post - Harvest Technology
Packaging and Storage
Composition
Adulteration
Quality Standards (PFA/BIS/ISO)
Processed Products
Volatile Oil
Decarvonized Oil
Caraway Chaff Oil
As Food Flavourant
Medicinal Uses
30. A. CELERY SEED
Indian Names
Description and Distribution
Varieties
Crop Management
Land Preparation
Sowing Method
Fertilizers
Irrigation
Plant Protection
Tissue Culture
Harvesting and Threshing
Yield
Post - Harvest Technology
Cleaning/Preparation for the Market
Composition/Quality
Grading
Packaging and Storage
Contaminants Tolerance Limits
Processed Products
Seed-based Processed Products
Processed Products from Celery Leaves/Stalks
How to Handle and Store Celery Seed and its Products
As a Food Flavourant
In Medicine
In Perfumery
Fatty Oil
Celery Root Use
B.Celeriac
Description and Distribution
Crop Management
Composition
31. CORIANDER
Indian Names
Description and Distribution
Origin and Brief History
Botanical Description
Crop Management
Climate
Soil
Preparation of Land
Manuring and Application of Fertilizers
Varieties
Rotation and Mixture
Sowing Time
Seed Rate and Method of Sowing
Increasing Seed Germination
Irrigation
Weeding and Hoeing
IISR (ICAR) recomendations for crop management of coriander
Plant Protection
Tissue Culture
Harvesting and Threshing
Yield
International Quality Specifications for Seed Spices
Post-Harvest Technology
Preparation for the Market
Quality Grading
Composition of Seeds and Coriander Leaves
Packaging.and Storage
Processed Products
Volatile Oil
Fatty Oil (Non-Volatile Oil)
Coriander Herb Oil
Coriander Oleoresin
Coriander Dal-an Improved CFTRI Process
Seasoning from Coriander Roots
As Flavourant
In Medicine
In Perfumery
Oleoresin-other Uses
Soluble Coriander (Superesin)
32. TREE SPICES
A. Aromatic Tree Spices
B. Acidulant Tree Spices
Cassia and Cinnamon
Nomenclature
Species of Cinnamomum Grown in India
I. Jangli-Darchini (CASSIA) or Karuva
Indian Names
Description and Distribution
Crop Management / Propagation
Propagation of Cassia
Air Layering in Cassia
II. ‘Tejpat or ‘Tamal Patra’ or Indian Cassia Lignea
Indian Names
Description and Distribution
Crop Management
Harvesting and Collection of Tamala Leaves
Preparation for Marketing
Yield
Essential Oil from Tamala Leaf
Leaf Oil
Bark Oil
III.Tezpat
Indian Names
Description and Distribution
Brief Description of Commercial Types and Classification or Grades of Cassia
China Cassia (Cassia Lignea)
Indonesia Cassia (Batavia Cassia, Java Cassia, Padang Cassia or Korintje Cassia, Cassia Vera)
Vietnam Cassia
Commercial Grades of Cassia in World Market
Physico-Chemical/Specification of Cassia Types
Packing
Storage
Transportation
33. FENNEL
Indian Names
Description and Distribution
Major Types of Fennel Seed in the World Market
Crop Management
Climate
Soil
Varieties
Land Preparation
Sowing Time
Seed Treatment, Seed Rate and Sowing Methods
Raising Seedlings in the Nursery
Transplanting of Seedlings
Intercropping
Manuring and Top-dressing with Fertilizers
Interculture Operations
Irrigation
Package of Practices Recommended
Tissue Culture
Plant Protection
Phased Harvesting and Threshing
Yield
Post-Harvest Technology
Commercial Classification/Grading
Composition
Packaging and Storage
Processed Products
Volatile Oil
Fixed Oil
As Food Flavourant
In Medicine
Residue (case) as Cattle Feed
Fenugreek
Indian Names
Description and Distribution
Area, Production and Exports
Crop Management
Climate and Soil
Preparation of Land
Manuring
Varieties
Package of Practices
Propagation
Seed Rate
Irrigation and Interculture
Tissue Culture
Plant Protection
Harvesting - Desi Methi
Production of Seed
Yield
Post-Harvest Technology
Packing and Storage
Composition
Marketing
Grades and Specifications
Processed Products
Fixed Oil
Volatile Oil
Effect of Roasting and Cooking on Nutritive Value
Oleoresin
Methi Leaves
As Food or Food Flavourant
In Medicine
As Cattle Feed, Veterinary Medicine
In Cosmetics; Dye/Hair Tonic and Cure for Baldness!
Leaves as a Vegetable Curry
Fixed Oil: Uses
34. CINNAMON OR TRUE CINNAMON
Indian Names
Description and Distribution
World Trade in Cinnamon
World Outlook/Prospects
Crop Management
Soil and Climate
Propagation
Manuring and Intercultivation
Weeding
Pruning/Cropping
Crop Improvement
Variability Studies
Plant Protection
Harvesting
Post-Harvest Technology
Preparation and Curing of Bark Spice for Marketing
Curing of Barks
Cutting and Peeling
Preparation of Quills
Drying
Utilization of Leaves and Twigs
Yield
Economics of Cultivation
Govt Incentives for Cinnamon Production and Marketing
Grading
Composition
World Types and Commercial Classification/Grades of Cinnamon
Type Sri Lanka (Ceylon)
Type Seychelles
Type Madagascar
Packaging of Different Commercial Classes of Cinnamon Bark and Powder
Packing of Cassia and Cinnamon and their Products
Storage of Cinnamon and Fumigation
Transport of Cinnamon
Processed Products
Cinnamon/Cassia Bark Oil
Cinnamon-Leaf Oil
Cinnamon and Cassia Oleoresins
Other Products
Packaging and Storage
Stem Bark
Stem Bark Oil
Cinnamon-Leaf Oil
Root Bark Oil
Seed Oil
Cinnamon Buds
Cinnamon Wood
35. CLOVE
Indian Names
Description, Distribution and Economic Importance
Constraints in Large-scale Cultivation/Production of Cloves in India
Crop Management
Site for Clove Cultivation
Climate and Soil
Varieties
Propagation
Mixed Cropping
Soil-working
Weeding
Support
Manuring
Interculture/Pruning, Thinning
Irrigation
Soil-and -Moisture Conservation Works
Water Management
Crop Management and Breeding Strategy
Crop Improvement: The Breeding Strategy Adopted at the IISR (ICAR)
Harvesting and Curing
Plant Protection
Yield
Economics of Cultivation
Constraints in Clove Cultivation
Central and State Govt Incentives for Production and Marketing of Cloves
Post-Harvest Technology
Preparation of Cloves for the Market
Grading
Storage
Transport
Defective Cloves
Composition
Adulteration
Quality Standards
Packing of Cloves
Packaging of Clove Oil
Packaging of Clove Oleoresin
Processed Products
Clove-bud Oil
Clove-stem Oil
Clove-leaf Oil
Oil of Mother Cloves
Clove-root Oil
As Food Flavourant
In Medicine
In Perfumery and Cosmetics
Other Uses
36. JUNIPER
Indian Names
Description and Distribution
Crop Management
Soil and Climate
Propagation
Flowering and Fruiting
Harvesting of Berries
Post-Harvest Technology
Drying of Fruits (Berries)
Grading
Composition of Juniper Berries/Fruits
Adulteration
Juniper Berry Essential Oil (Volatile Oil)
Composition of Juniper Volatile Oil
Manufacturing Alcoholic Beverages
As Food and Food Flavourant
Juniper Oil
Other Parts of the Tree
In Medicine
Volatile Oil
Juniper Wood
Other Uses/by-Products
Exhausted Fruits/Berries
Juniper Needles
Roots
Wood
Juniper Wood Oil
Mace and Nutmeg
Indian Names
Mace
Indian Names
Description and Distribution
Crop Management
Climate and Soil
Propagation by Nursery Technique
Transplanting of Seedlings in the Field
Mixed Cropping
Manuring
Mulching
Interculture/Weeding
Plant Protection
Constraints in Nutmeg Cultivation
Crop Improvement
Sex Determination-Past, Present and Future
Harvesting and Curing
Yield
Economics of Cultivation
Central and State Govt Incentives for Production and Marketing
Post-Harvest Technology
Packaging of Mace and Nutmeg
Grading
Quality/Composition of Mace and Nutmeg
Processed Products
Mace Products
Nutmeg Products
Variations in Aroma/Flavour of Nutmeg and Mace Accessions
Nutmeg
Mace
37. PIMENTO OR ALLSPICE OR PIMENTA
Indian Names
Description and Distribution
Description
Distribution
Area, Production and Exports/Imports
Crop Management
Soil and Climate
Propagation
Transplanting of Seedlings
Weeding/After-Care
Aftercare : Fertilizer Schedule
Manuring
Successful Fruiting in Allspice-A Recent Achievement of NRCS (IISR, ‘Calicut’.)
Harvesting and Yield
Major Types of Allspice (Pimento)
Crop Improvement Strategy or Breeding Strategy
Yield of Berries
Plant Protection
Post-Harvest Technology
Grades/Types
The ISO Grades of Pimento (Whole and Ground)
Physical Requirements for Whole Pimento
Chemical Requirements of Whole Pimento
Storage of Pimento
Transport of Pimento
Composition
Packaging and Storage
Processed Products
Pimenta Berry Oil
Pimenta-leaf Oil
Pimenta Oleoresin and Oil
As Food Flavourant
Use in Medicine
Berry Oil
Leaves
Pimenta Bark and Wood
A. Star-Anise
Indian Names
Description and Distribution
Area and Production
Crop Management
Soil and Climate
Propagation
Raising Nursery and Transplanting
Weeding
After-care Mulching
Manuring and Fertilization
Maturation and Flowering
Fruit Development
Harvesting of Fruits
Yield of Fruit
Post-Harvest Technology
Drying of Fruit
Processing Technology and Procucts
Manufacturing Essential Oil
Native vs Modern Distillation of Oil
Yield of Oil
Quality of Star-anise Oil
Quality Grading of Star-anise Oil
Leaf Oil
Fatty Oil
Star-anise as Flavourant
In Medicine
Star-anise Oil
B. Japanese star-Anise
Description and Distribution
Area, Production and Exports
Crop Management
Post-Harvest Technology
Processing Technology
38. BALM OR LEMON BALM
Indian Names
Description and Distribution
Crop Management
Soil and Climate
Propagation
Cultural Practices
Harvesting
Yield
Post-Harvest Technology
Processing Technology
Manufacturing Essential Oil
Physico-chemical Properties of Oil
As Food Flavourant
In Medicine
Basil or Sweet Basil (Tulsi)
Indian Names
Description and Distribution
Major Types of Basil
American Basil
Area, Production and Exports
Crop Management
Varieties
Soil and Climate
Breeding
Propagation
Plant Protection
Harvesting
Yield
Post-Harvest Technology
Packaging and Storage
Composition
Processed Products
Distillation of Oil
As Food Flavourant
In Perfumery and Cosmetics
In Medicine
As Insecticide, Insect-Repellent and Bactericidal
Use of Basil Seeds
Bay or Laurel Leaves
Indian Names
Description and Distribution
Post-Harvest Technology
Drying
Composition
Processing Technology
Essential Oil Recovery
Physico-chemical Properties of Volatile Oil
Bay Leaves for Flavouring
Fat from Bay or Laurel Berries
Laurel Wood Utilization
39. CURRY LEAF
Indian Names
Description and Distribution
Area, Production
Crop Management
Curry Leaf Cultivation in Homesteads of South Kerala
Raising Nursery
Manuring
Harvesting
Weeding
Prophylactic Measures for Plant Protection
Cost of Cultivation
Cultivars and their Sensitivity to Winter Temperature
Plant Protection
Termites
Post-Harvest Technology
Packing and Storage
Composition
Processed Products
Volatile Oil
Dehydrated Curry Leaves
As Food Flavourant
In Indigenous Medicine
In Perfume and Cosmetics
Fruits
Wood
Hyssop
Description and Distribution
Area, Production and Exports
Crop Management
Soil and Climate
Planting and Cultivation
Harvesting
Yield
Post-Harvest Technology
Composition
Processing Technology
Distillation of Essential Oil
Yield of Essential Oil
Physico-chemical Properties of Volatile Oil
As Condiment
In Medicine
Volatile Oil Uses
Marjoram
Indian Names
Description and Distribution
Crop Management
Soil and Climate
Propagation
Influence of Growth Regulators on Growth, Herbage and Essential Oil Yields
Harvesting
Flowering
Post-Harvest Technology
Drying, Packing and Storage
Composition
Processed Products
Volatile Oil
As Food Flavourant
In Perfumery and Cosmetics
In Medicine
40. PEPPERMINT
Indian Names
Description and Distribution
Crop Management
Processed Procuts
Volatile Oil
In Medicine/Pharmaceuticals
Waste Utilization
Spearmint
Indian Names
Description and Distribution
Crop Management
Important Steps in its Successful Cultivation in India
Composition
Processed Procucts
Volatile Oil
Origanum
Indian Names
Description and Distribution
Crop Management
Soil and Climate
Propagation
Sowing
After-care
Harvesting
Post-Harvest Technology
Drying
Composition
Processed Products
Volatile Oil
As Food Flavourant
In Medicine
Other Uses
Parsley
Indian Names
Description and Distribution
Area, Production and Trade
Crop Management
Climate and Soil
Direct Sowing/Sowing in Nursery Beds
Transplanting of Seedlings
Manuring/Fertilizers
Harvesting
Yield
Post-Harvest Technology
Composition
Processed Products
Dehydrated Parsley
Volatile Oil
Fatty Oil
As Food Flavourant
In Medicine
41. ROSEMARY
Indian Names
Description and Distribution
Crop Management
Climate and Soil
Propagation
Planting
Harvesting
Yield
Post-Harvest Technology
Drying and Packing
Composition
Processed Products
Volatile Oil
As Food Flavourant
In Perfumery and Cosmetics
In Medicine
Sage
Indian Name
Description and Distribution
Major Types of Sage in World Trade
Different Forms of Sage
Crop Management
Climate and Soil
Propagation
Planting
Harvesting
Yield
Post-Harvest Technology
Drying
Composition
Marketing/Trading
How to Handle and Store
Processed Products
Volatile Oil
As Food Flavourant
In Medicine
Use in Perfumery
As Anti-oxidant
Use of Residue
Uses of Seeds
Clary Sage (Salvia sclarea Linn.) or ‘Garden Sage’
Introduction
Savory
Indian Names
Description and Distribution
Area, Production and Exports
Crop Management
Soil and Climate
Propagation
Seed Rate, Method of Sowing and Weeding
Harvesting
Yield
Post-Harvest Technology
Processing Technology
Essential Oil of Savory
Composition of Dried Herb
Composition of Fresh Herb
Volatile Oil
Tarragou
Indian Names
Description and Distribution
Crop Management
Soil and Climate
Propagation
Planting Season
Harvesting
Post-Harvest Technology
Composition
Processing Technology
Essential Oil
Physico-chemical Properties of Oil
Precautions in the Storage of Oil
As Food Flavourant
In Medicine
In Perfumery
Thyme
Indian Names
Description and Distribution
Major Types of Thyme
Crop Management
Climate and Soil
Propagation
Post-Harvest Technology
Commercial Quality
Composition
Handling and Storage of Thyme
Processed Products
Thyme Extractives-Volatile Oil and Oleoresin
Thymol
As Food Flavourant
In Medicine
42. ASAFOETIDA OR ASAFETIDA
Indian Names
Description and Distribution
Types or Varieties of Asafoetida Imported into India
Method of Collection of Gum-resin
Crop Management
Varieties of Asafoetida
Types/Varieties of Asafoetida of Commerce
Quality Evaluation
Composition
Processed Products
Oil of Asafoetida
Oil of Galabanum
Compounded Asafoetida Powder and Tablets : A Simple CFTRI Process
As Food Flavourant
In Medicine
Calamus or Sweet Flag
Indian Names
Description and Distribution
Crop Management
Climate and Soil Requirements
Preparation of Land
Planting Method
Planting Time
Irrigation
Weeding
Manuring
Harvesting
Yield
Plant Protection
Post-Harvest Technology
Preparation for the Market
Adulteration
Composition
Processed Products
Volatile Oil
In Medicine
In Perfumery
As an Insecticide
In Foods Beverages and Liquors
43. GALANGAL
Description and Distribution
Economic Importance
Crop Management
Varieties/Races of Galangal
Planting
Plant Protection
Application of Manures/Fertilizers
Harvesting
Yield
Post-Harvest Technology
Composition
Volatile Oil
Oleoresin Content
Galangal Rhizomes
Galangal Oil
Galangal Oleoresin
Horse-Radish
Description and Distribution
Crop Management
Post-Harvest Processing Technology
Volatile Oil
Composition of Horse-radish
Adulteration
As Condiment
Horse-Radish Cream, Sauce or Relish
In Medicine
Long Pepper or Pipli
Indian Names
Description and Distribution
Crop Management
Soil and Climate
Propagation
Manuring
Harvesting
Yield
Plant Protection
Post-Harvest Technology
Drying and Packaging.
Composition
Processed Products
Volatile Oil
As Food Flavourant
In Medicine
44. SAFFRON
Indian Names
Description and Distribution
Crop Management
Soil
Climate
Land Preparation and Planting
Manures and Fertilizers
Irrigation
Interculture
Crop Rotation
Effect of Plant Density on Flower, Yield and Corm Production
Variation in Floral Characteristics of Saffron in different Kashmir Locations
Harvesting or Picking of Flowers and obtaining Saffron
Yield
Cost of Cultivation of Saffron
Economic Viability of Saffron Cultivation
Pests and Diseases
Recent Studies on Crop Management of Saffron in Iran
Effect of Fertilizers (NPK)
Post-Harvest Technology
Sun-Drying of Saffron in Kashmir
Effect of Different Processing (Different Drying and Dehydration Techniques)
Composition
Adulteration
Packaging and Storage
Marketing
Processed Products
As Flavourant and Colourant for Foods
Medicinal Properties
45. VANILLA
Indian Names
Description and Distribution
Commercial Forms of Vanilla
General Characteristics of Vanilla Forms
Qualitative Classification of Vanilla Pods
Crop Management
Climate
Soil
Preparation of Land
Providing Supports (Posts) for Vines
Planting
Manuring
After-care
Flowering and Natural Pollination
Hand-pollination
Pod Development
Vanilla Production Plan by Tissue-Culture Technique
Vegetative Propagation of Vanilla
Yield
Plant Protection
Diseases
Post-Harvest Technology
Curing
Vanilla Bean Packing and Storage
Composition
Adulteration/Substitution
Processed Products
Vanilla Extracts/Essences
Vanilla Sugar
Vanilla Oleoresin
Vanilla powder, ‘Vanilla absolute’ and Vanilla Tincture
As Food Flavourant and in Perfumery
Vanillin

^ Top

Origin, Properties and Uses of Spices

AJOWAN

Sometimes mislabeled as lovage seeds, ajowan is a popular spice in Indian. Pakistani, Iranian and Ethiopian cooking. It is an essential ingredient in a Bengali seasoning called panchphoran. Omam water, an infusion of ajowan seeds, has been used since ancient times in India for stomach pains, colic, diarrhea and other bowel disorders.

Scientific Name(s): Trachyspermum ammi, T. copticum or Carum copticum. Family: Apiaceae (parsley family).

Common Names: ajwain, carom, wild parsley. It is also called netch azmud (Amharic), taleb el koub (Arabic), jowan (Bengali), bishop's weed (English), nanava (Farsi), ajowan (German, Italian), ajwain/carom (Hindi), ayamodakam (Malayalam), assamodum (Singhalese) and omam (Tamil).

Origin and Varieties: ajowan is indigenous to southern India but is also cultivated in Europe, Egypt, Pakistan, Iran and Afghanistan.

Form: it is a small, caraway-like seed that is used whole or ground.

Properties: ajowan is a close relative of caraway, dill and cumin. It has large curved and ridged oval, celery-like seeds that are light brown to purplish red in color. Ajowan seed looks like celery seed and when bruised has a taste similar to thyme but stronger. It has piney, phenol-like and slight lemony notes. When crushed or ground, it has a more intense flavour. It can be bitter and slightly spicy. Its leaves, stems and roots are aromatic.

Chemical Components: ajowan contains 2.5% to 5% essential oil, mainly thymol (35% to 60%), along with ?-pinene, ?-cymene, limonene and ?-terpinene.

Ajowan Contains Calcium and Iron

How Prepared and Consumed: ajowan is commonly used by North Indians, Pakistanis, North Africans and Iranians. It is used whole or ground and has a natural affinity with starchy foods, such as root vegetables, legumes, breads, snacks and green beans. Ajowan makes starch and meats easier to digest and is added to legumes to prevent flatulence. It goes well with cumin, ghee, garlic, ginger and turmeric.

In North India, ajowan seeds are fried in ghee with other spices, and this aromatic mixture is added to cooked legumes and vegetables. The seeds are also used in a fried bread called paratha, added to snacks (pakora) and pastries and served with nuts. In Bengal, it is used as part of a seasoning called panchphoran, which goes well with fish and vegetable curries. To enhance its flavor, ajowan is roasted or fried in oil until it becomes light brown. It then provides a more intense aroma to fish curries, lentil stews and potatoes.

In Ethiopia, ajowan is an integral part of a spice blend called berbere, which is used in meat stews and vegetables.

Spice Blends: berbere, chat masala, panchphoran and pakora filling blend.

Therapeutic Uses and Folklore: ajowan is highly valued in India as a stomach medicine and an antiseptic. It is combined with salt and hot water to control flatulence and indigestion. Ajowan was also a traditional remedy for cholera and fainting spells.

Ajowan is an ingredient in mouthwashes and toothpastes because of its antiseptic properties.

ALLSPICE

The English derived the name allspice because the flavors of several spices, such as cloves, cinnamon, nutmeg and black pepper are combined in it. Native to the Caribbean and the Americas, Spanish explorers named it pimienta or pepper because the allspice berry resembles a large black peppercorn. Pimienta was eventually anglicized to pimento. Also called Jamaican pepper, allspice is not related to the peppercorn. It was first imported into Europe in 1601 as a substitute for cardamom.

Scientific Name(s): Pimenta dioica, formerly P. officinalis. Family: Myrtaceae (myrtle family).

Common Names: Jamaican pepper, pimento, clove pepper. Also, pepe di Giamaica, baharat, Ib'harhelo (Arabic), piment (French, German, Dutch), pimento (English, Italian), toute-epice/poivre de Jamaique (French), nelken-pfeffer (German), pilpel hodi (Hebrew) orusupaisu (Japanese), kappalmulagu (Malayalam), kryddpeppar (Swedish), pimienta gorda and pimienta de Jamaica (Spanish), kattukaruva (Tamil) and yeni bahar (Turkish).

Origin and Varieties: there are many types of allspice, each with varying tastes. It is indigenous to the Caribbean Islands, specifically Jamaica, South America (Brazil, Leeward Isle), Central America (Guatemala, Honduras) and Mexico. Allspice is also grown in India and Reunion. The U.S. buys mainly from Central America and Mexico.

Form: the berry/seed of the pimiento tree is picked green/unripe and then dried until it turns dark reddish brown in color. It is globular and has a rough textured surface. It is slightly larger than the black peppercorn. The Mexican type is the largest and darkest in color. Jamaican allspice berries are smaller. Allspice is used whole or ground. The aromatic leaves and bark can also be used to provide an allspice-type flavor to foods, especially to smoked meats and beverages.

Properties: allspice has a warm, pungent taste and the aroma of cloves with sweeter, floral background notes. Its flavor has a hint of cinnamon, mace and nutmeg with peppery overtones. Jamaican allspice is the most aromatic. The Mexican variety is less sweet and more mellow than the Jamaican or Central American types. Allspice berries lose their aroma upon ripening, so they are collected in an unripe stage and are dried in the sun until they turn dark reddish brown in color. The leaf has a different, woodier aroma and a less intense, coarse, flavor. The bark has coarse woodier notes than the leaf.

Chemical Components: the allspice berry contains 1.5% to 5% essential oil, which is colorless to reddish yellow. The Jamaican type has up to 5% essential oil, Guatemalan-3%, Mexican-1.4% to 3% and Honduran-1.3% to 4%. Jamaican allspice has a minimum of 65% phenols, mainly eugenol (68-78%), methyl eugenol (2.9-13%), 1,8-cineol, ?-phellandrene, humulene, terpinolene and caryophyllene. The fixed oil content is about 6%. The Mexican variety has a high myrcene content (5%). Allspice has over 8% quercitannic acid that provides its astringency.

The Jamaican variety produces the most leaf oil-its fresh leaf contains 0.35% to 1.25% essential oil (dried leaf has higher oil, from 0.7% to 2.9%). The essential oil contains 80-90% phenols, mainly eugenol, ?-pinene, caryophyllene, limonene, 1,8-cineole and good amounts of tannin. The bark contains small amounts of eugenol and higher levels of tannin.

The oleoresin is brownish green to dark green in color. About 2-1/2 Ibs. of essential oil will replace 100 Ibs. of freshly ground spice, while 5 Ibs. of oleoresin will replace 100 Ibs. of freshly ground spice.

Dried allspice has calcium, potassium, sodium, manganese and beta-carotene.

How Prepared and Consumed: the Aztecs and Mayans flavored their chocolate drink with allspice seeds. Caribs and other indigenous Americans used it for preserving fish and meat. This practice was learned by the Spanish who also used allspice to preserve meats. During the seventeenth century, pirates in the Caribbean smoked and barbecued meat with allspice, which they called boucan.

Nowadays, allspice seeds are typically used whole as part of a spice blend for pickling and marinating fish. In the U.S., allspice is ground for use in seasonings and sauces, and its extracted oils are used in sausages. Allspice is also used in ketchup, jams, pumpkin pies, gravies, roasts and ham. It goes well with smoked pork, beef and fish and with habaneros, cumin, onions, tamarind, cinnamon and cloves. Allspice leaf is used in baked goods, chewing gum, candy, ice cream, fruit soups, teas and liqueurs.

Allspice is the most important spice in Caribbean cooking and is used in curries, stews, barbecues and sweet potatoes. Jamaica's popular jerk seasoning has ground allspice as its main ingredient. It is rubbed over pork, chicken or fish that are then cooked over a fire. It gives a smoky and spicy flavor to the barbecued product. Allspice leaves are sometimes stuffed into the meat that is then barbecued over allspice wood or bark to give it the typical flavor of "jerk."

In Oaxaca, Mexico, allspice is used in certain moles. In India, it becomes part of some curry blends. Scandinavians use it to preserve herring. The English use ground allspice in cakes, puddings, mincemeats, pickled vegetables, sausages and cured meats. In North Africa, allspice is used in Ethiopian berberes and Moroccan ras-el-hanout spice blends. Middle Easterners flavor stews, kibbeh (ground lamb with cracked wheat) and pilafs with ground allspice.

Spice Blends: jerk seasoning, berbere, ras-el-hanout, quatre-epices, fish pickling blend, ketchup blend and Jamaican curry blend.

Therapeutic Uses and Folklore: the Aztecs and Mayans used allspice to embalm bodies because of its preservative qualities. It was also considered an aphrodisiac.

Allspice has been used to promote digestion and remove gases from the upper intestinal tract. It is used as a mild anaesthetic for aching gums and teeth and as a mild pain reliever for muscles and joints.

Allspice has bactericidal, fungicidal and antioxidant properties.

ANISE/ANISEED

Anise/aniseed is a popular spice used throughout the world. It was called anysum by early Arabs, anison by Greeks and then anise by the English. Ancient Assyrians used anise as a medicine, Greeks found it to be a digestive aid, and the Romans used anise to soothe sore throats. It was used as an aphrodisiac and as a charm against nightmares.

Associated with the taste of licorice, the Portuguese called anise erva doce, the "sweet herb," and the Indonesians called it jintan manis, the "sweet seed." Asian Indians often confuse anise with fennel because its flavor and name, saunf, are similar to fennel. In China, anise is commonly used with fennel and star anise to add a savory, sweet flavor to barbecues.

Scientific Name(s): Pimpinella anisum. Family: Umbelliferae (carrot family).

Common Names: sweet cumin, aniseed and common anise. It is also called yansoon (Arabic), anijs (Dutch), anisun (Farsi), anis vert (French), anis (German, Swedish, Russian), anison (Hebrew), patli saunf (Hindi), anise (Italian), anisu (Japanese), jintan manis (Malaysian, Indonesian), huei shiang (Mandarin), erva doce (Portuguese), anis (Tagalog), shombu (Tamil, Malayalam), anis (Spanish) and cay vi (Vietnamese).

Origin and Varieties: it is indigenous to Greece, Egypt, Crete, Turkey and Lebanon. Anise is also grown in Mexico, Chile, Argentina, Syria, Spain, Italy, India, Pakistan, China, Russia, Japan and Germany.

Form: anise is a dried ripe fruit or seed. It is small, oval, greenish gray to yellow brown, with a ridged or ribbed surface. Anise is sold whole, cracked or ground. When it is ground into powder, anise quickly loses its flavor.

Properties: anise seed has a sweet licorice-like taste and is warm, fruity and camphoraceous. Anise's flavor is similar to fennel and star anise, but it is more delicate. Its leaves are also aromatic.

Chemical Components: depending on its source, anise seed has 1-1/2% to 6% essential oil, mainly trans-anethole (80-90%), methyl chavicol (10-15%), iso-anethole (2%) and anisaldehyde (less than 2%). It has 8% to 20% fixed oil. The leaf has a much lower level of essential oil.

About 2-1/2 Ibs. essential oil is equivalent to 100 Ibs. freshly ground spice. and 8-1/4 Ibs. oleoresin will replace 100 Ibs. freshly ground spice.

Anise contains iron, potassium, phosphorus and calcium.

How Prepared and Consumed: the early Romans used anise to flavor a special cake called mustaceum that was served as a dessert to aid digestion. They also mixed anise with vinegar and honey and used the mixture as a tonic to soothe sore throats. This spice tends to be used in sweet foods in Europe, while in Asia, anise is combined with pungent, spicy ingredients for savory applications. Anise goes well with fruits, sugur, fennel, wine and cinnamon. Anise leaves and stalk can garnish fruit salads and are sometimes added to fish soups and cream sauces. They are roasted or sauteed in oil with other spices to enhance stewed vegetables, roasted meats, curries and tomato sauces.

The Portuguese, Germans, Scandinavians, French and Italians use anise to flavor cakes, sweet rolls, cookies, sweets, applesauces, rye bread, churek, pancakes, cheeses, relishes, marinated meat and fish, beef stew, salad dressings, sausages and luncheon meats.

Europeans flavor many liqueurs and spirits with anise, such as anisette, arrack, sambuca, pernod, pastis and even juice drinks and teas.

Middle Easterners use anise in sweet and savory dishes, and it is the fundamental ingredient in their local spirits, ouzo and raki. Syrians use it in a beverage called miglee and in their popular fig jams.

Spice Blends: curry blends, hoisin, tomato sauce blends, sausage blends and betel leaf mixture.

Therapeutic Uses and Folklore: traditionally, Europeans used anise to treat epilepsy and to ward off evil. The Aztecs drank tea made from its flowers and leaves to relieve coughing. Anise can dispel gas and aid digestion, improve appetite and alleviate cramps, nausea and colic in infants. Anise is commonly used in lozenges and cough syrups because it is a mild expectorant. It also soothes insect bites and is chewed to induce sleep. In India, anise seeds are served after meals to aid digestion and sweeten breath.

Anise shows antifungal activity.

Forms, Functions and Applications of Spices

INTRODUCTION

Spices are the building blocks of flavor in food applications. Food developers who wish to use these building blocks effectively to create successful products must understand spices completely. The word "spice" came from the Latin word "species," meaning specific kind. The name reflects the fact that all plant parts have been cultivated for their aromatic, fragrant, pungent or any other desirable properties including the seed (aniseed, caraway, coriander), leaf (cilantro, kari, bay, mint), berry (allspice, juniper, black pepper), bark (cinnamon), kernel (nutmeg), aril (mace), stem (chives), stalk (lemongrass), rhizome (ginger, turmeric, galangal), root (lovage, horseradish), flower (saffron), bulb (garlic, onion), fruit (star anise, cardamom, chile pepper) and flower bud (clove).

For people throughout the world, spices stimulate the appetite, add flavor and texture to food and create visual appeal in meals. Called rempah (Malaysian and Indonesian), beharat (Arabic), besamim (Hebrew), epices (French), kruen tet (Thai), masala (Hindi), specie (Italian), especerias (Spanish), sheng liu (Mandarin), specerjien (Dutch), krooder (Norwegian) or kimem (Ethiopian), spices have been savored and sought around the world from the earliest times because of their diverse functions.

Nowadays, food professionals continually search for "new" and unique spice flavorings because of the growing global demand for authentic ethnic and cross-cultural cuisines. Consumers are also seeking natural foods and natural preservatives for healthier lifestyles and natural ways of preventing ailments. So, spices are also being sought for their medicinal value, as antioxidants and as antimicrobials.

This chapter describes: the different forms in which spices are sold and their composition, the primary and secondary functions of spices in applications, the techniques for preparing spices, the methods for applying spices in product development, and the methods for assuring proper quality control in spices.

SPICE FORMS AND COMPOSITION

Spices are available in many forms: fresh, dried, whole, ground, crushed, pureed, as paste and as extractives. Each form has its respective qualities and drawbacks. The form chosen by the food product designer will depend on the specific application, processing parameters and shelf life.

FRESH WHOLE SPICES

Consumers prefer the taste of freshly made food. The "fresh" taste consumers seek from spices comes initially from their aroma. This aroma is due to the volatile component of the spice. It can be lost during harvesting, storing, processing or handling. For some spices, the fresh forms have different flavor profiles than the dried forms, examples include ginger, cilantro or basil. Fresh ginger has been found to be less pungent than dried ginger because fresh ginger has less shogaols (non-volatile constituents that cause pungency) than dry ginger.

Fresh ingredients, especially whole spices, when freshly ground give prepared foods a fresh taste. Fresh spices provide crunchy, crispy textures and colorful appeal. Fresh whole spices also become very aromatic when they are roasted or fried in oil, and their aroma transfers to the application. This is especially true of whole or cracked seeds and leaves, such as bay leaf, kari leaf or mustard seeds.

Whole spices provide aroma and, most importantly, texture and visual effect. Certain spices have a strong aroma when fresh, such as basil, garlic, onion and cilantro, due to their high volatile (essential) oils. The essential oils disappear quickly at high temperatures, especially if the spices are processed in an aqueous system, but they can also be lost at room temperatures or when the spices are cut or bruised.

While uneven distribution of whole spices in a product can be problematic, this effect is sometimes desired to achieve nuttiness or a sensation of "bite" into a whole spice, such as whole sesame seeds on a breadstick or ajowan seeds on Indian naan bread. In this regard, whole spices can become the major flavor characterizing a product. Also, whole spices, especially the leafy spices, provide great visual appeal as garnishes.

Flavor is intact in the whole spice and is more slowly released than with the ground spice, especially when subjected to preparation techniques such as frying or roasting, during which time, the whole spice slightly cracks open.

In a whole spice, the chemical components that provide the flavors vary in concentration throughout the spice. In chile peppers, the greatest concentrations of pungent compounds are found in the inner portions, such as the veins and seeds.

In many whole spices, cooking or processing changes the spices chemical compounds and their proportions to varying degrees, often giving rise to different flavors. For example, smoking, grilling or drying certain chile peppers significantly changes their flavor and color. When jalapeno is smoked and dried, it changes its flavor and color completely, giving it a new identity, called chipotle.

Spices that do not have a strong aroma, such as bay leaf, chile pepper or sesame seed, develop intense flavor after roasting or boiling. Mustard seed, star anise and fagara (Szechwan pepper) are generally dry roasted to intensify their flavors for meat, fish and poultry dishes.

Many spices, such as lemongrass, spearmint, basil and chile peppers, are blended fresh and are used in making sauces and condiments with water, oil, wine or vinegar. The fresh pureed or paste forms have intense flavors and need to be mixed well before application in sauces, soups or gravies. Since the paste form usually contains oil, it can become rancid in a shorter period of time.

Consumers want to use "fresh" spices, but usually their flavors, colors and textures are lost during storage and prolonged processing. Preliminary preparations, such as grinding, roasting or flaking of whole spices, need to be done before adding them to processed foods.

Consistency is also more difficult to achieve in fresh spices because their origin, age and storage conditions cause flavor variations. Therefore, dry spices and spice extractives are, by necessity, the forms most often used to formulate foods or beverages. Fresh whole spices are not frequently found in processed foods, but are generally used in restaurants, in home cooking and in other smaller scale applications.

The goal for a food designer is to develop products that will have the "fresh" quality desired by consumers but that have spice-sensory attributes that can withstand processing, freezing and storage conditions.

DRIED SPICES

Spices are often used in their dried forms because they are not subject to seasonal availability, are easier to process, have longer shelf life and have lower cost. These dried forms are most frequently used for processed products or for wholesale usage. Dried spices come whole, finely or coarsely ground, cracked and as various-sized particulates. Spices are ground by milling them to various sized particulates. This grinding also generates rapid air movement and heat that dissipate some of the volatile oils and even change some natural flavor notes through oxidation.

Depending on its form, the same dried spice will deliver different flavor perceptions in the finished product. Ground spices have better dispersibility in food products than fresh whole spices. Some volatile oils are released through grinding, which partially breaks down the cellular matrix of the spice. In some spices, flavor is intensified through drying because of the elimination of most moisture. This leaves a greater concentration of the low volatile compounds that give stronger flavor but less aroma due to the loss of the volatile constituents. Dried spices can better withstand the higher temperatures and processing conditions than fresh spices.

Some dried spices can be used to characterize an application's flavor and texture. Garlic and onion, which come powdered, granulated, ground, minced, chopped and sliced and in various sized particles, characterize flavor and texture in garlic bread, onion bagels or chips.

Whether a dried spice is used ground, granulated, cracked or whole will depend on its use in specific applications. Many ground spices need to be "rehydrated" in order to develop their flavor, such as ground mustard that becomes pungent only when water is added. This addition of water triggers an enzyme reaction that releases the spice's aroma. Acidulents, oil or vinegar are also added to preserve the pungency or intense flavors of the spice in the finished product.

In processed foods, dried spices can be more economical to use than fresh spices. For example, dried leafy spices do not require the cutting, chopping or grinding preparation that the fresh forms do. Also, most dried spices retain a higher overall flavor concentration than fresh spices. For example, one pound of dried garlic has an equivalent flavor of five pounds of fresh garlic.

The sensory, physical and chemical characteristics of dried spices are determined by environment, climate, soil conditions, time of harvesting and post-harvest handling. The same type of spice can have different sensory characteristics depending on where it was grown and how it was harvested, stored and processed. For example, dried ginger from India has a subtle lemon-like flavor, dried ginger from southern China comes with slightly bitter notes and ginger from Jamaica has more pungent flavor. Similarly, ground black pepper, which comes from a dried berry called peppercorn, varies in flavor intensity depending on its origins. Black peppercorns from Tellicherry are highly aromatic (India), while Lampong (Sumatra) pepper is less aromatic with more pungency. The Malaysian and Brazilian peppercorns, in contrast, have milder aromas with stronger bites.

For most spices, the time period between harvesting and storage and between when the spice is ground and added to a food are crucial for obtaining its maximum potential.

The way a spice is treated or processed before being ground, and the conditions of storage before delivery to the food processor, create flavor and color differences. Spice flavor can be readily oxidized, and losses occur during milling and storage of spices.

Most spices such as cumin, coriander and cardamom give more aroma and flavor when freshly ground than when bought as a pre-ground spice. When spices are ground, the oils tend to volatilize, causing aroma losses. Anise, black pepper and allspice lose their aroma quickly as soon as they are ground. To better retain color, flavor and aroma, spices are sometimes milled using lower temperatures. While spices lose more aroma as they are ground more finely, the advantage is that finely ground spices blend better in finished products that require a smooth texture.

Ground spices should be stored in tightly closed containers and should not be exposed to light, high temperatures or humidity. Moisture and high temperatures will help mold growth that will cause spoilage. Generally, the moisture content of spice is 8% to 10%. High storage temperatures cause flavor loss, color changes and caking or hardening of the ground spice. Spices need to be stored at 50°F to 60°F (10°C to 15°C) with a relative humidity (RH) of 55% to 65%.

Dried spices can have some disadvantages. Some, have poor flavor intensity, can cause discoloring in the finished product and can create an undesirable appearance in the product. For example, dried ground cayenne can cause irregular variations in flavor and color, sometimes creating "hot" spots in food products. Anticaking agents are added to ensure better flowability of dried spices. In applications with high moisture content, such as salad dressings or soups, where particulates are desired for visual and textural effects, there is a great risk in using dried spices, unless they are sterilized.

SPICE EXTRACTIVES

Flavor is a combination of taste and aroma. The sensations of sweet, piney, sour, bitter, spicy, sulfury, earthy and pungent are derived from an overall combination of aroma (due to volatile components) and taste (mainly due to nonvolatile components) in a spice.

Spice extractives, which are highly concentrated forms of spices, contain the volatile and non-volatile oils that give each spice its characteristic flavor. The volatile portions of spice extractives, also referred to as essential oils, typify the particular aroma of the spice. Most spices owe their distinctive "fresh" character to their essential oil content that generally ranges from 1% to 5% but even goes up to 15% in certain spices. The non-volatiles include fixed oils, gums, resins, antioxidants and hydrophilic compounds, and they contribute to the taste or "bite" of a spice.

Certain spices are prized for their bites and coloring, such as black pepper, chile peppers, ginger, saffron and turmeric. These properties are due to the non-volatile portions of spices.

Volatile oils contain several chemical components whose amount and proportion give rise to the spices characteristic aromas. These can include one, two or several components. The major chemical components of essential oils are terpene compounds-monoterpenes, diterpenes and sesquiterpenes. Monoterpenes are the most volatile of these terpenes and give out strong aromas when spice tissues and cells are disintegrated through heating, crushing, slicing or cutting.

The taste of a spice such as sweet, spicy, sour or salty, is due to many different chemical components such as esters, phenols, acids, alcohols, chlorides, alkaloids or sugars. Sweetness is due to esters and sugars; sourness to organic acids (citric, malic, acetic or lactic); saltiness to cations, chlorides and citrates; astringency to phenols and tannins; bitterness to alkaloids (caffeine and gly-cosides); and pungency to the acid-amides, carbonyls, thio ethers and isoth-iocyanates.

The ratio of volatiles to non-volatiles varies among spices causing flavor similarities and differences within a genus and even within a variety. Within the genus Allium for example, there are differences in flavor among garlic, onions, chives, shallots and leeks, which differ in this ratio. They vary depending upon the species of spice, its source, environmental growing and harvesting conditions and storage and preparation methods. Even the distillation techniques can give rise to varying components-through loss of high boiling volatiles, with some components not being extracted or with some undergoing changes.

Non-volatiles in a spice also vary with variety, origins, environmental growth conditions, stage of maturity and post-harvest conditions. For example, the different chile peppers belonging to the Capsicum group, such as ha-baneros, cayennes, jalapenos or poblanos, all give distinct flavor perceptions, depending on the proportion of the different non-volatiles, the capsaicinoids.

Spice extractives come as natural liquids (which include essential oils, oleoresins and aquaresins) and dry encapsulated oils (spray-dried powders and dry solubles). Developed from fresh or coarsely ground spices, spice extractives are standardized for color, aroma, and, with some spices, for their antioxidant activity. They are more concentrated than dried or fresh spices and so are used at much lower levels. These extractives provide more consistency than dried spices in prepared foods.

ESSENTIAL (VOLATILE) OILS

Essential oils, such as oil of basil, oil of caraway or oil of black pepper, are produced by grinding, chopping or crushing the leaf, seed, stem, root or bark; then cold expressing, dry distilling or extracting through steam distillation (water, steam, steam and water) and recovering the distillate oil with a solvent. Sometimes the oil is distilled from a whole spice, such as the leaf or flower, or from a broken spice. Depending upon the method of extraction, the nature of the volatiles can differ with the same type of spice.

Essential oils are the major flavoring constituents of a spice. Each essential oil has many chemical components, sometimes even up to 15, but the characterizing aroma generally constitutes anywhere from 60% to 80% of the total oil. The essential oils are composed of hydrocarbons or terpenes (e.g., ?-terpinene, ?-pinene, camphene, limonene, phellandrene, myrcene and sabinene), oxygenated derivatives of hydrocarbons (e.g., linalool, citronellol, geraniol, carveol, menthol, borneol, fenchone, tumerone and nerol), benzene compounds (alcohols, acids, phenols, esters and lactones) and nitrogen- or sulfur-containing compounds (indole, hydrogen sulfide, methyl propyl disulfide and sinapine hydrogen sulfate).

Terpenes usually contribute to the freshness of a spice and can be termed floral, earthy, piney, sweet or spicy. The oxygenated derivatives, which include alcohols, esters, acids, aldehydes and ketones, are the major contributors to the aromatic sensations of a spice. The compounds with benzene structure provide sweet, creamy and floral notes, while the sulfur- and nitrogen-containing compounds give the characteristic notes to onion, garlic, mustard, citrus and floral oils.

Essential oils are soluble in alcohol or ether and are only slightly soluble in water. They provide more potent aromatic effect than the ground spices. Essential oils lose their aroma with age. Essential oils are very concentrated, about 75 to 100 times more concentrated than the fresh spice. They do not have the complete flavor profile of ground spices, but they are used where a strong aromatic effect is desired. Essential oils are used at a very low level of 0.01 to 0.05% in the finished product. They can be irritating to the skin, toxic to the nervous system if taken internally (by themselves) and can cause allergic reactions and even miscarriages.

Examples of Characterizing Essential Oil Components in Some Popular Spices

Spice	Components in Essential Oils
Allspice seed	Eugenol; 1,8-cineol; humulene, ?-phellandrene
Basil, sweet	Linalool; 1,8-cineol; methyl chavicol, eugenol
Cardamom	1,8-cineole; linalool; limonene; ?-terpineol acetate
Dill leaf	Carvone, limonene, dihydrocarvone, ?-phellandrene
Epazote	Ascaridol, limonene, p-cymene. myrcene, ?-pinene
Fennel	Anethole, fenchone. limonene. ?-phellandrene
Ginger	Zingiberene, curcumene, farnescene, linalool, borneol
Juniper	?-pinene, ?-pinene, thujene. sabinene, borneol
Kari leaf	Sabinene, ?-pinene, ?-caryophyllene
Lemongrass	Citral. myrcene, geranyl acetate, linalool
Marjoram	cis-sabinene, ?-terpinene, terpinene 4-ol. linalool
Nutmeg	Sabinene, ?-pinene, limonene, 1,8-cineol
Oregano	Terpinene 4-ol, ?-terpinene, cis-sabinene
Pepper,	black Sabinene, ?-pinene, ?-pinene, limonene. 1.8-cineol
Rosemary	1.8-cineol, borneol. camphor, bornyl acetate
Star anise	Anethole, ?-pinene, ?-phellandrene. limonene
Turmeric	Turmerone. dihydrotumerone, sabinene, 1,8-cineol
Zeodary	Germacrone-4, furanodienone, curzerenone. camphor

Sometimes, alternative oils extracted from a different part of the same spice plant or from another variety are used to enhance or adulterate the more expensive essential oils, but suppliers need to meet the quality specifications that are required from manufacturers for these essential oils.

Tissue Culture and in Vitro Conservation of Spices

INTRODUCTION

The productivity of many of spice crops is considerably low due to various factors such as inadequate availability of high yielding varieties, absence of genotypes resistant to pests and diseases and absence of variability in many of the introduced crops. Biotechnology with its apparently unlimited potential offers new and exciting opportunities to address the above crop specific problems. Some of the important applications of biotechnology in spices are; micropropagation and rapid clonal multiplication of high yielding 'elite' genotypes to generate good Quality planting material; exploiting somaclonal variation and genetic engineering techniques for crop improvement; in vitro selection for resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses; in vitro conservation and safe exchange of germplasm and production of flavour and volatile constituents in culture.

This paper reviews the present status of biotechnology of spices with emphasis on the work done in India.

CARDAMOM

'Katte' disease caused by virus is one of the major production constraints in cardamom. Utilisation of virus-free planting material is considered the most important input in disease management programme and to check disease spread.

Clonal Multiplication

Cardamom is multiplied vegetatively as well as through seed. Being a cross pollinated crop, clones are ideal for generating true to type planting materials from high yielding clumps. However, due to inadequate availability of clonal planting material, farmers still prefer seedlings. In vitro propagation method for clonal propagation of cardamom has been standardized.

High rate of multiplication coupled with additional advantage of obtaining uniform and disease free planting material makes micropropagation a preferred method to conventional method. Field evaluation of tissue cultured plants was carried out at Indian Institute of Spices Research (IISR). Preliminary results showed that the micropropagated plants performed on par with suckers of the original mother plant. However, Nadgauda, Mascarenhas & Madhusoodanan reported that the tissue cultured plants were superior to that of seedling progenies.

Regeneration of Plantlets from Callus

Rao et al. reported successful regeneration of plantlets from callus of seedling explants of cardamom. Protocols for organogenesis and plant regeneration from rhizome and vegetative bud-derived callus cultures were also standardised (with about 20-50 plantlets per culture) at IISR which are being used for large scale production of somaclones and selection of useful genotypes. High amount of variability was noticed among the somaclones for the morphological characters in the culture vessels itself. Somaclones are being evaluated in the field at IISR for their genetic variability. Efficient plant regeneration systems are essential for future genetic manipulation to evolve resistant genotypes for combating biotic and abiotic stress.

Inflorescence Culture

Immature inflorescences form an excellent source for clonal multiplication of cardamom through tissue culture especially when other sources are prone to high rate of contamination. Kumar et al. reported the successful conversion of immature floral buds to vegetative buds and subsequently to plantlets.

BLACK PEPPER

The conservation of the precious genetic resources of black pepper is highly essential. Phytophthora foot rot and slow decline diseases are major diseases affecting pepper plantations. None of the existing genotypes is resistant to these diseases.

Clonal Multiplication

There are many reports of in vitro multiplication of black pepper from mature shoot tip explants and from seedlings. The multiplication rate is around 6 shoots per culture in about 90 days. Earlier reports on micropropagation of black pepper reported phenolic exudates from the cut surface and bacterial contamination severely hampered the establishment phase. Methods for reducing phenolic interference and systemic contamination in the in vitro cultures have been reported.

Callus Cultures and Regeneration of Plantlets

Efficient plant regeneration system is an important step in genetic manipulation attempts. Protocols for plant regeneration were standardised and plants were regenerated from leaf tissues directly without intervening callus phase and leaf callus.

MICROPROPAGATION OF RELATED SPECIES OF PIPER

Piper betle is an economically important species cultivated extensively in India. Piper longum L. (Indian long pepper) and Piper chaba Hunt. (Java long pepper) are another group of medicinally important spices. Piper colubrinum is a South American species found to be resistant to Phytophthora capsici and Radopholus similis. Piper barberi Gamble is an endangered species from South India.

Protocols for rapid clonal multiplication of P.longum from shoot tip explants are available and have been standardised. Plants were regenerated from leaf and stem explants of P.longum, P.chaba and P.colubrinum through both direct and indirect organogenesis. In P.betle, different ex-plants from shoot, leaf and root developed multiple shoots and regenerated into plantlets either directly or through intervening callus phase. Conversion of root meristem into shoot meristem and its subsequent development to plantlets were reported in P.longum and P.colubrinum. Micropropagated plantlets of these species are being evaluated for their field performance at IISR.

GINGER

Rhizome rot caused by Pythium aphanidermatum, bacterial wilt caused by Pseudomonas solanacearum, and leaf spot caused by Phyllosticta zingiberi are major diseases of ginger. Shoot borer (Conogethes punctiferalis) and rhizome scale (Aspidiella hartii) are major pests and plant parasitic nematodes like Meloidogyne incognita and Pratylenchus sp. are affecting ginger production. These diseases and pests are mostly spread through infected seed rhizomes. Crop improvement programmes in ginger are hampered by lack of seed set leading to limited variability. Somaclonal variation could be an important source of variability that could be exploited to evolve high-yielding, high-quality lines and to develop lines resistant to disease and pests. Tissue culture techniques could also be used for in vitro pollination, embryo rescue and possible production of 'seed' in ginger.

Clonal Multiplication

Clonal multiplication of ginger from vegetative buds has been reported by many workers. Tissue culture technique would help in production of infection free planting material.

At IISR, field evaluation of tissue cultured plants indicated that they cannot be used directly for commercial planting as two crop seasons are required for the micropropagated plants to develop rhizomes of normal size that can be used as seed rhizomes.

Regeneration of Plantlets from Callus

Regeneration of plantlets through callus phase has been reported from leaf explants. The techniques for plant regeneration from leaf, ovary and vegetative buds were standardized. This system could be used for inducing somaclonal variability in ginger. This is very important in crops where conventional breeding is hampered by lack of seed set. Somaclones could also be used for screening against biotic and abiotic stress.

In Vitro Selection

Kulkarni, Khuspe & Mascarenhas reported isolation of Pythium-tolerant ginger by using culture filtrate. In vitro selection for resistant types to Pythium and Pseudomonas is in progress at IISR using culture filtrates of the pathogen or pathotoxin.

Inflorescence Culture and in Vitro Development of Fruit

In nature, ginger fails to set fruit. However, by supplying required nutrients to immature inflorescence in culture, it was possible to make the ovary develop in vitro into 'fruit' and subsequently plants could be recovered from the fruits. It is also possible to convert the immature floral buds into vegetative buds and their subsequent development into complete plants.

In Vitro Rhizome Development

In vitro rhizome formation was reported in 10 per cent of the cultures when ginger plantlets were maintained in the culture medium for more than 100 days. In vitro formed rhizome may form a source of disease-free planting material. Probably they can also be coated with alginate to facilitate longer storage and transportation.

TURMERIC

Rhizome rot caused by Pythium graminicolum is a major production constraint. Curcumin is the important colouring material obtained from turmeric and development of varieties with high recovery of curcumin is the need of the hour.

Micropropagation

Successful micropropagation of turmeric has been reported. Micropropagation of turmeric was standardized at IISR using young vegetative buds as explants.

Plant Regeneration from Callus

Organogenesis and plantlet formation were achieved from the callus cultures of turmeric. Variants with high curcumin content were isolated from tissue cultured plantlets.

VANILLA

In India vanilla is an introduced crop and practically there is no variability in the cultivated form of this spice. Vanilla, though produces numerous minute seeds, these do not germinate under natural condition. Hence, the crop is commercially propagated by means of stem cuttings. Further, root rot, caused by Fusarium batatatis var. vanillae, is a devastating disease which wipes out a plantation in a short period. Tissue culture techniques could be used for germination of seeds, rapid multiplication and for getting disease-free planting material.

Micropropagation

Micropropagation of vanilla using apical meristem of aerial roots was standardized for large scale multiplication of disease free and genetically stable plants.

Vanilla is known to have many meiotic and post-meiotic chromosomal abnormalities. As a result of these aberrations, it is quite possible to get various cytotypes in the seed progenies. Culturing of seeds can thus give many genetically variant types.

In vitro germination of vanilla seeds has been reported. A population of vanilla progenies are being established at IISR so that the variations among them could be used for crop improvement. Variations among the progenies from seed and ovule cultures were reported based on morphological and isozyme characterization. Callus induction and shoot regeneration were also reported.

SAFFRON

Saffron is a triploid and sterile genotype propagated vegetatively by means of corms.

Micropropagation

Reports are available on the micropropagation and plant regeneration in saffron. However, most of the reports in this crop are on the in vitro proliferation of stigma and in vitro synthesis of colour components and metabolites. Successful micropropagation and regeneration were reported from corms.

TREE SPICES

Clove, cinnamon, allspice and nutmeg are important tree spices grown in India. Though all these crops could be propagated vegetatively, non-availability of enough quality planting material is the limiting factor. Long pre-bearing period makes crop improvement programmes time consuming. In all these perennial tree crops, identification and clonal multiplication of high-yielding genotypes become an immediate priority. Standardization of micropropagation methods will help in rapid multiplication of 'elite' planting materials in these crops.

Micropropagation

Micropropagation of clove from seedling explants have been reported. Successful micropropagation from shoot tip of mature cinnamon has been reported. Micropropagation of in vitro raised Murraya koenigii was reported by Hazarika, Nagaraju & Parthasarathy.

In Vitro Proliferation of Mace and Synthesis of Flavour

Components in Culture

Nutmeg and mace are the two important spices obtained from nutmeg tree. Nutmeg is the kernel while mace is dried aril that surrounds the seed. In vitro proliferation of mace tissue has been reported by Nirmal Babu et al.. A ten-fold increase in the fresh weight of the tissue within two weeks was observed. Proliferated tissue not only retained the colour but also the flavour of original mace. Gas chromatographic analysis of the mace oil extracted from the cultured tissue was similar to that of original in qualitative profile. This technique, if refined further, has tremendous potential for industrial production of mace tissue and in vitro production of myristicin and myristic acid.

Tissue Culture Studies on Tree Spices

INTRODUCTION

Concerted efforts on tissue culture propagation of spices especially tree spices have been few when compared to those on ornamentals, fruits, vegetables and other agricultural crops, though conventional vegetative propagation of tree spices has not been able to meet the demand of planting material. Literature survey on tissue culture of spice crops revealed that reports on tree spices are limited to those on regeneration of plantlets in cinnamon clove nutmeg and tamarind. We report here the results of our studies on the in vitro regeneration potential of 4 tree spices viz. clove, nutmeg, tamarind and curry leaf.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

For shoot multiplication, tender, actively growing shoots from elite trees of clove, nutmeg, tamarind and curry leaf as well as seeds of clove and tamarind were used as explant sources. Nodal segments from the shoots were collected and washed under running tap water for 1 h and surface sterilised using standard procedures. Subsequently, dissected nodal segments of clove were suspended in sterile distilled water for 30 min to allow leaching out of harmful phenolic oxidation products. The embryos of clove were isolated from fresh ripened fruits and those that were olive green were selected, washed, surface sterilised and planted radical tip downwards on different media. Likewise, seeds of tamarind were surface sterilised and implanted horizontally on the medium. The sterilant used in all cases was mercuric chloride (0.10%).

Medium based on Murashige & Skoog and WPM containing a variety of plant growth regulator combinations was designed for different explants. The plant growth regulators used were BAP, KN, 2 ip, IAA, NAA and IBA.

For callus cultures, leaf segments from the seedlings of clove, internodal and leaf pieces of nutmeg and inter-nodes, cotyledons, hypocotyles and roots of tamarind were utilised. Plant growth regulators like 2, 4 -D, NAA, PCPA, KN and BAP were used in different combinations.

The cultures were incubated at 16 h photoperiod (2000 lux) at 25 ± 1° C.

RESULTS

Clove

Nodal segments from mature clove trees displayed excessive leaching of oxidised phenolic products into the culture medium, proving lethal to the explants. Inclusion of PVP, ascorbic acid, citric acid and activated charcoal in the medium did not prove effective in adsorbing the phenolic products. Though frequent transfer of explants to fresh medium was moderately effective, high contamination (95%) in the explants could not be evaded. The response of surviving explants was also poor with regard to multiple shoot regeneration. However, cultured embryos exhibited relatively higher regenerative potential, enhanced percentage of multiple shoot formation. When planted on MS medium with low levels of BA ([ 1mgl -1), the embryos germinated into single plantlets. At higher levels of BAP ( ]2 to 3 mg1-1) combined with IAA and NAA (0.2 mgl -1 each), 3-5 shoots initiated from each embryo, from the cotyledonary nodal region within 40 days in culture. The shoots elongated on the same medium to 4-5 cm and developed 2 to 3 nodes ruling out the otherwise essential intervention of a shoot elongation medium. Nodal segments from seedlings also responded well enough producing 8-10 buds at a range of 0.5 cm to 2 cm shoot length. The shoots could be rooted at half strength MS media supplemented with NAA and IBA at 1 mgl -1.

Segments from tender leaves were cultured on MS medium employing several auxins (2,4-D, IAA, IBA, PCPA) and cy-tokinins (KN, BA) at varying ratios. 2,4-D at higher concentration (]3-5 mgl -1) induced dry spongy, creamy white friable callus, whereas at lower levels ([ 2.0 mgl -1) gave rise to creamy, friable but nodular callus. The nodular callus upon transfer to medium having still lower levels of 2,4-D ([ lmgl-1) developed embryogenic nodules. Rhizogenesis was also observed occasionally. Though BAP promoted green compact callus from explants, failed to evoke any regenerative response.[/P]

Nutmeg

Actively growing orthotrophic shoot segments of elite nutmeg trees, cultured on various media based on WPM displayed a very poor response. Axillary buds appeared highly dormant. Medium containing a mixture of BAP, KN, 2 ip, NAA and IBA stimulated single shoot development within 2-3 months in culture. Shoot proliferation could not be accelerated irrespective of modifications in concentrations of the above growth regulators. Earlier reports on nutmeg micro propagation by Mariska, Gatidan & Sukmadijaja revealed similar culture response. Culture of seedling explants is not desirable in nutmeg due to segregation of sex in progenies from seeds. An attempt was made for regeneration through callus cultures using tender leaves and other vegetative plant parts from mature trees.

Tender leaf segments exhibited capability of callus production on medium supplemented with 2,4-D and BAP as growth regulators. Callus though slow growing, appeared green and compact with several nodular regions. Shoot like out growths (2-3 mm long) were observed to develop from one of the calli on medium with high levels of BAP (] lmgl -1). However, the cultures failed to evoke any further response.

Tamarind

Seeds inoculated on MS basal media devoid of growth regulators germinated within 10 -15 days. Shoot tips and nodal segments excised from 4 -5 cm tall in vitro seedlings were cultured on MS medium containing BAP, KN, NAA, IAA, and IBA. On MS medium containing 0.5 mgl -1 BAP, 0.5 mgl -1 KN and 0.1 mgl -1 IAA, 2-3 multiple shoots developed from nodes and shoot tips. However, the same medium when used for direct regeneration from seeds, generated callus. At higher concentrations of BAP (]2mgl -1) with IAA/NAA (0.2 mgl -1) 3 to 5 multiple shoots developed but at the base of the shoots callus formation was noticed. The multiple shoots attained a length of 2-3 cm within 45 days. Individulised shoots were planted on medium containing IAA, NAA and IBA each at 0.2 mgl-1 for root initiation. Rhizogenesis occurred within 5 weeks in about 50% cultures exhibiting small thin roots.

Tamarind, though mostly seed propagated, conventional methods like grafting and rooting of cuttings have also been tried with varying degrees of success. Micropropagation technique can be followed for tamarind for its large scale production. This method is comparatively quicker and may be used to circumvent problems associated with conventional vegetative propagation methods.

Callus initiation was observed in almost all explants cultured viz. cotyledon, in-ternodes, hypocotyl and root segments excised from in vitro seedlings. Callus was cream white to brown, soft but compact. 2,4-D and Kinetin were the growth regulators used in MS medium for callus induction.

Curry Leaf

Tender shoot sections from curry leaf trees when cultured on MS medium containing BAP (1-2 mgl-1) and NAA / IAA (0.1 to 0.5 mgl-1) developed 4 to 6 multiple shoots over a period of 3 weeks. The cultures were rapidly proliferating with multiple buds developing asynchronously from the nodal regions as well as adventitiously around the nodal regions. The shoot buds at a range of 0.5 cm to 2 cm in length elongated on a medium with relatively low BAP (0.5 mgl-1 ). Rooting of cultured shoots could be facilitated on medium supplemented with 1 mgl-1 IBA and activated charcoal at 500 mgl-1. Rooting efficiency was about 60%. Curry leaf is commercially propagated through seeds. Inadequate availability of planting materials of vegetative origin could be circumvented by using in vitro methods as an alternative propagation method, the latter being faster and the progenies true to type.

The present study thus indicates the possibility of in vitro direct organogenesis (through multiple shoots ) from axillary buds for clove, tamarind and curry leaf, whereas, the same is difficult in the case of nutmeg. In nutmeg, there are several factors such as seasonal, explant juvenility, unresponding tissues etc. that might affect development of a successful in vitro regeneration system. The callus path way seems to be feasible in nutmeg and can be utilised, provided undesirable varients are checked.

Micropropagation of Some Important Herbal Spices

INTRODUCTION

Herbal spices are fragrant herbaceous plants of which the whole plants, twigs, leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds etc., fresh or dried are used as flavouring agents. Once an elite genotype is identified it can be multiplied rapidly through tissue culture. Tissue culture studies were reported in anise celery, fennel, thyme, mint, lavender. This paper reports tissue culture methods in thirteen herbal spices viz., anise (Pimpinella anisum L.), celery (Apium graveolens L.), dill (Anethum graveolens L.), fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.), parsley (Petroselinium crispum Mill.), thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.), spearmint (Mentha spicata L.), peppermint (Mentha piperita L.), sage (Salvia officinalis L.), marjoram (Marjorana hortensis L.), oregano (Origanum vulgare L.), sacred basil (Ocimum sanctum L.) and lavender (Lavendula angustifolia Mill.) for rapid multiplication, plant regeneration from callus and minimal growth storage.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Explants

Seeds of herbal spices used in this study were obtained from Lockhart Seeds Inc. 3 North Welsonway, Stockton, California. Seeds were treated with 0.01% fungicide (copper oxychloride) solution for 15 min and washed thoroughly several times with filtered water. They were then surface sterilised with 0.1% mercuric chloride for 3-4 min under aseptic conditions and washed with 5-6 changes of sterile distilled water. Seeds were then placed on culture medium for germination and the seedlings were allowed to grow for 30-60 days. Shoot tips and nodal segments were excised from these seedlings and used for micropropagation, callus regeneration and in vitro conservation.

Culture Media

Murashige & Skoog basal medium supplemented with 0.5 mgl-1 kinetin and 2% sucrose, gelled with 0.7% agar was used for the germination of seeds. The MS basal medium supplemented with Kin, BAP, NAA, and IBA (0.5 mg 1-1 and 1.0 mg 1-1) alone and in combination, sucrose (3%), gelled with agar (0.7%, 0.8% and 0.9%) was used to study the in vitro responses like multiplication, callus induction and plant regeneration.

MS basal medium at full and half strength, with sucrose (30 gl-1, 20 g1-1 10 g1-1) alone and in combination with mannitol (10 gl-1, 20gl-1), supplemented with 0.9% agar was used to induce minimal growth in cultures and to increase the subculture interval.

Culture Conditions

The pH of the medium was adjusted to 5.8 and autoclaved at 121º temperature and 1.5 kg/cm2 pressure for 20 min. All the cultures were incubated at 25°C and 12 h photoperiod of 2500 lux. Observations were recorded on multiple shoot production, callus induction and regeneration.

RESULTS

In Vitro Seed Germination

The rate of germination and time taken for germination varied in different species. Seeds germinated within 10-20 days in the medium. Crops like anise, celery, dill, fennel, marjoram, oregano, peppermint, spearmint, sacred basil, sage and thyme showed 70-90% germination whereas in parsley and lavender the germination was only 20-30%.

Micropropagation and Callus Regeneration

Shoot tips and nodal segments excised from 30-60 days old seedlings gave rise to multiple shoots, rooting and callus regeneration in MS medium supplemented with different concentrations of auxins and cytokinins. Multiple shoots could be induced in all the crops studied whereas successful plant regeneration from callus was observed in anise, dill, fennel, lavender and sage. In celery, marjoram, oregano, parsley, peppermint, spearmint, sacred basil and thyme, plant regeneration could not be induced. Multiplication rate was very high in plants belonging to Lamiaceac and produced 10-20 fold increase in the biomass in 45 days of culture.

In the case of fennel, MS supplemented with BAP (1.0 mgl-1) and IBA (0.5 mgl-1) was suitable for both multiple shoot formation and callus regeneration. Multiple shoots ranging from 4-7 were produced in 6 weeks of culture in 70 per cent of the cultures. Callusing was observed and plant regeneration was achieved in 60 per cent of the culture. The callus on transfer to fresh medium regenerated to shoots. Rooting was achieved in MS medium devoid of growth regulators. Micropropagation, callus regeneration and somatic embryogenesis were reported in fennel. Hunault, Desmareswt & P. Manior reported the difficulty in regenerating plants from callus but in the present study regeneration of shoots could be achieved in 60 per cent of cultures.

Among all the media combinations tried MS supplemented with IBA (0.5 mgl-1) was suitable for the production of 10-15 multiple shoots in about 85 per cent of the cultures in celery and rooting was also achieved in the same medium. Micropropagation of celery was reported by Toth & Lacy. In the present study no callus formation was observed in any of the combinations tried. Multiple shoots were produced in all the combinations but the highest rate was observed in MS medium with 0.5 mgl-1 IBA.

In dill 60 per cent of the cultures responded in MS with 0.5 mgl-1 kinetin. Multiple shoots (1:7) as well as callus initiation were noticed in this medium. Profuse callusing was obtained in MS supplemented with 2, 4-D (2 mgl-1). The proliferated callus on transfer to MS basal medium regenerated to plantlets (50%). In anise multiple shoots and plant regeneration from callus was induced in MS with (1.0 mgl-1) BAP and 0.5 mgl-1 IBA in 80% and 75% of the cultures respectively. Somatic embryo-genesis and cell culture studies were reported in anise.

In lavender, oregano, parsley, peppermint, spearmint, sacred basil and sage, MS medium with IBA (0.5 mgl-1) and BAP (1.0 mgl-1) was suitable for the production of multiple shoots. In sage and lavender callus regeneration was obtained in MS with BAP (1.0 mgl-1) and IBA (0.5 mgl-1). Marjoram and thyme produced multiple shoots initially in MS with 0.5 mgl-1 kinetin and later on multiple shoots and rooting was obtained in growth regulator free medium. Micropropagation and regeneration of thyme was reported by Furmanowa & Olszowska. They used Nitsch & Nitsch as the basal medium with different growth factors for thyme multiplication by shoot cultures, nodal segments and cotyledon segment culture. Clonal propagation of Mentha piperata was reported. Cellarova reported peppermint can be clonlly propagated in Linsmaier & Skoog medium with 2 mgl-1 BAP solidified with 0.4% agar. In the present report peppermint seeds germinated in MS with 0.5 mgl-1 kinetin and the in vitro derived shoot tips and nodal segments multiplied at the rate of 1:30 in 45 days of culture in MS supplemented with 0.5 mgl-1 IBA and 1.0 mgl-1 BAP. In the present study lavender could be micropropagated from shoot tips and nodal segments from in vitro derived seedlings in MS supplemented with BAP (1 mgl-1) and IBA (0.5 mgl-1) and callus regeneration (80%) was also obtained in the same medium. In this medium on an average of 5-7 shoots were obtained in 40-45 days of culture. In lavender, callus induction and regeneration of callus were also obtained in the same medium in 60 days. Micropropagation by axillary budding and plant regeneration via callus was reported in lavender. In sage, plant regeneration from callus was obtained in 80% of the cultures.

In Vitro Response of Herbal Spices

Plant species	Growth regulator (mgl-1)	Response	Response (%)
Anise	BA(1) + IBA (0.5)	MS,CR	80
Celery	IBA (0.5)	MS	90
Dill	Kin (0.5)	MS	60
	2,4-D (2)	CI
	MS basal medium	CR
Fennel	BA(1) + IBA (0.5)	MS,CR	70
Parsley	BA(1) + IBA (0.5)	MS	70
Lavender	BA(1) + IBA (0.5)	MS,CR	75
Sacred basil	BA(1) + IBA (0.5)	MS	70
Oregano	BA(1) + IBA (0.5)	MS	80
Marjoram	MS + Kin (0.5)	MS	75
Peppermint	BA(1)+IBA(0.5)	MS	85
Spearmint	BA(1)+IBA(0.5)	MS	80
Sage	BA (1) + IBA (0.5)	MS,CR	75
Thyme	Kin (0.5)	MS	80

To our knowledge no detailed study has been made on tissue culture of spearmint, sage, oregano, marjoram and ocimum. In oregano, prevention of vitrification associated with in vitro shoot cultures by Pseudomonas spp. was reported. In the present study also species belonging to the family Apiaceae showed vitrification and they require frequent subculture to maintain healthy cultures. Increase in agar concentration from 0.7 to 0.9% helped in reducing vitrification to some extent.

Multiplication rate was high in thyme, peppermint, oregano, celery and spearmint. Upon transferring to multiplication medium, they produced shoots and plantlets which appeared like a clump filling the culture vessel within 30-40 days. Growth rate is very high and healthy growth ceases within 30-40 days of subculture. This may be due to depletion of nutrients in culture medium. Response was faster in mints compared to other crops. Rooting could easily be achieved in the same basal medium containing charcoal (1 gl-1) or without any growth regulators.

In Vitro Conservation of Herbal Spices

Plant species	Medium	Storage period (months)	Survival(%)
Anise	½ MS+ 20 gl-1S	6	60
Celery	½ MS+ 20gl-1S	5	70
Dill	½ MS+ 20 gl-1S	4
Fennel	½ MS+ 20 gl-1S	4	65
Lavender	½ MS+ 20 gl-1S	8	70
	+ 10 gl-1M
Marjoram	½ MS+ 20 gl-1S	8	75
Oregano	½ MS+ 20 gl-1S	8	70
Parsley	½ MS+ 20 gl-1S	4	65
Peppermint	½ MS+ 20 gl-1S	12	85
Sage	½ MS+ 20 gl-1S	6	65
	+ 10 gl-1M
Spearmint	½ MS+ 20 gl-1S	6	65
Thyme	½ MS+ 20 gl-1S	12	80

In Vitro Conservation

All the species studied are very fast growing under in vitro conditions and maintenance of healthy cultures more than thirty days was difficult under normal conditions. Among the combinations of media tried, reduction of sucrose and/or reduction of nutrients helped in reducing the growth rate of in vitro cultures. The media combination, percentage of survival and storage period are given in Table 2. Shoot cultures of dill, fennel, celery, parsley, oregano, marjoram, peppermint, spearmint, anise, thyme and ocimum could be stored upto a period of 4-12 months without subculture in ½ MS medium supplemented with 20 gl-1 sucrose. Lavender and sage could be stored upto six months in ½ MS medium with 20 gl-1 sucrose and 10 gl-1 mannitol. Agar was used at 9 gl-1, so that vitrification could be reduced. In vitro conservation of herbal spices was not reported so far except in Mentha species which could be stored up to 6-13 months. The techniques standardised in the present study can be used for large scale multiplication of elite genotypes, production of biomass in the culture vessel, creating variability through callus regeneration and also for the maintenance of germplasm in in vitro genebank.

Spices in Ayurveda

Spices are intrinsically associated with Indian cuisine and its aroma and colour can make an ordinary dish into a sublime feast. Spices are used in meals to create a state of wellness. Cooking foods with spices is the oldest form of aromatherapy, since aroma stimulates gastric secretions that create appetites. Many of the spices that are popular today are indigenous to India, where they have been savoured for thousands of years.

Ayurveda, the ancient system of healing from India, has been singing the praises of spices as "wonder-foods" for thousands of years. The sacred Ayurvedic texts, which were formulated before 1000 B. C. and dealt with matters of health and medicine, make frequent reference to the use of spices. In about 500 B. C., the physician Susruta described 700 drugs derived from plants, including spices like cinnamon, ginger, turmeric, pepper etc. Spices are ingredients in many synergistic Ayurvedic herbal formulations and specific spices are included in Indian vegetarian diet to contribute to all six tastes (rasas) - sweet, sour, salty, bitter, pungent and astringent-at every main meal, is a basic tenet of Ayurvedic dietary wisdom. It is a matter of debate whether, in India, spices were used as an item for flavouring or an ingredient of daily diet to balance the thridosas for healthy living. These doshas have their own natural tastes or rasas. Tastes or rasas are used to balance an aggravated dosha, which give rise to an illness. For example; a vitiated vata condition is balanced by salt, sour (tamarind) and sweet (cardamom); vitiated pitta by bitter (fenugreek), sweet (fennel), and astringent (asafoetida) and vitiated kapha by pungent (garlic), bitter (ajowan) and astringent (licorice).

AYURVEDIC CONCEPT OF TRIDOSHA

In Ayurvedic philosophy, the five elements combine in pairs to form three dynamic forces or interactions called doshas. Dosha means "that which changes." It is a word derived from the root dus, which is equivalent to the English prefix 'dys', such as in dysfunction, dystrophy, etc. In this sense, dosha can be regarded as a fault, mistake, error, or a transgression against the cosmic rhythm. In Ayurveda, dosha is also known as the governing principle as every living thing in nature is characterized by the dosha.

The three active doshas are called Vata, Pitta and Kapha.

Dosha Related Elements

Vata

Air and Ether (Space)

Pitta

Fire and Water

Kapha

Water and Earth

Vata is a force conceptually made up of elements, space (ether) and air. Vata means "wind, to move, flow, direct the processes of, or command." Vata enables the other two doshas to be expressive. The actions of Vata are drying, cooling, light, agitating, and moving. Vata governs breathing, blinking of the eyelids, movements in the muscles and tissues, pulsations in the heart, all expansion and contraction, the movements of cytoplasm and the cell membranes, and the movement of the single impulses in nerve cells. Vata also governs such feelings and emotions as freshness, nervousness, fear, anxiety, pain, tremors, and spasms.

Pitta is a force created by the dynamic interplay of water and fire. These forces represent transformation. Pitta governs digestion, absorption, assimilation, nutrition, metabolism, body temperature, skin coloration, the lustre of the eyes, intelligence, and understanding. Psychologically, pitta arouses anger, hate, and jealousy. The small intestine, stomach, sweat glands, blood, fat, eyes, and skin are the seats of pitta.

Kapha is the conceptual equilibrium of water and earth. Kapha is structure and lubrication. Kapha cements the elements in the body, providing the material for physical structure. This dosha maintains body resistance. Kapha lubricates the joints; provides moisture to the skin; helps to heal wounds; fills the spaces in the body; gives biological strength, vigor and stability; supports memory retention; gives energy to the heart and lungs, and maintains immunity. Kapha is present in the chest, throat, head, sinuses, nose, mouth, stomach, joints, cytoplasm, plasma, and in the liquid secretions of the body such as mucus. Psychologically, kapha is responsible for the emotions of attachment, greed, and long-standing envy. It is also expressed in tendencies toward calmness, forgiveness, and love. The chest is the seat of kapha.

Medicinal Applications of Spices and Herbs

With the advent of science, the active principles residing in spices and herbs which are responsible for flavour, colour and nutritional value have been identified and tested, and there is concerted efforts to find non-traditional applications of spices such as anti-oxidant, anti-microbial properties and its use in cosmetics and health-food industry. A few companies have emerged in the recent years in the forefront of export with non-traditional usage of spices in the form of products which are having high value addition than the common spices marketed in the form of whole, broken or ground form.

Most of the spices and herbs have active principles in them and development of these through pharmacological and pre-clinical and clinical screening would mean expansion of considerable opportunities for successful commercialization of the product. A few leading manufacturers are already in the fray with the assistance of Spices Board by undertaking projects on pepper, turmeric fenugreek, garlic and the research is directed to develop applications for non-traditional and broad brand therapeutical usage.

Pure piperine extracts obtained from black pepper has shown to significantly enhance the bioavailability of various supplemented nutrients through increased absorption. Another derivative from pepper known as Tetrahydropiperine also have the property of bioavailability enhancement and its applications for human usage is being explored through clinical studies to determine the exact dosage required and for finding out the side effects, if any.

Curcumin is a powerful antioxidant obtained from turmeric. Its efficacy is comparable to standard antioxidants such as vitamin C an