1. THE DYEING OF TEXTILE MATERIALS
Mordants
Assistants
Dyestuffs
Indigo
The Ingrain Dyes
Water Used in Dyeing
Interdependence of Processes
Processes Preliminary to Dyeing
Wool Scouring
"Boiling-off" Silk
Cotton Bleaching
Wool Dyeing Processes
Dyeing of Loose Wool
Slubbing (Silver)
Yarn Dyeing
Piece Dyeing
"Woaded Colours"
Blacks on Wool
Dark Blues, Greens, and Browns on Wool
Cotton Dyeing Processes
Fast Blacks on Cotton
Fast Colours on Cotton
Basic Colours on Cotton
Dyeing of Mercerized Cotton
Union Dyeing Processes
Silk Dyeing Processes
The Dyeing of Artificial Silk
Colour Matching
Fastness Properties of Dyes
2. THE PRINCIPLES OF SPINNING
Long Fibre Spinning
Short Fibre Spinning
3. PROCESS PREPARATORY TO SPINNING
Four Methods of Preparing Vegetable Fibres
for Spinning
Four Methods of Preparing Animal Fibres
for Spinning
Two Methods of Silk Preparation
Typical Example of the Method of
Preparing and Spinnig
A Textile Material (China-grass or Ramie)
Preparatory Machines
The Cotton Gin
The Washing or Scouring Machine
The Dryer
The Cotton Scutcher
The Flax Scutcher
The Backwasher
The Preparing Gill-box
The Carder
The Dresser
The Comb
The Drawing-box
The Cone Drawing-box.
The French Drawing-box
4. THE PRINCIPLES OF WEAVING
Group-unit Weaving
Shedding
Picking
Beating-up
Letting-off and Taking-up
The Boxing Mechanism
The Stop-rod and Loose-reed Mechanism
The Weft-fork Mechanism
The Warp-stop Mechanism
The Spooling or Shuttling Mechanism

5. THE PRINCIPLES OF DESIGNING AND
    COLOURING

Materials
Interlacing
The Use of Point-paper
Colour
Figure Designing
6. THE PRINCIPLES OF FINISHING
Finishing Processes and Machines
Mending, Knotting and Burling
Scouring
Milling
Crabbing
Steaming
Dyeing
Washing-off
Drying
Tentering
Brushing and Raising
Cropping or Cutting
Singeing
Pressing
Calendering
Schreincring
Filling
Conditioning
Waterproofing
General Notes
7. TEXTILE CHEMICALS
Indian Demand
Demand for Bleaching Agents
Textile Bleach Formulation
Industry Trends and Success Factors
Outlook and Opportunities
Fluorescent Whitening Agent
Sector of Applications
Usage Pattern
Industry Trends and Success Factors
Outlook and Opportunity
Flame Retardants
Halogenated Compounds
Non Halogenated Compounds
Application
Sector of Applications
Bleaching Agents
Use of Various Bleaching Agents on
Textile Fibres
Hydrogen Peroxide
Sodium Hydrosulphite (Hydros)
Sodium Hypochlorite
Application and Formulations
Bleaching Assistants
Chelating Agents
Fatty Alcohol Ethoxylate
Carboxy Methyl Cellulose
Demand
Acrylates
Industry Treands and Success Factors
Pattern of Use and Formulation - Starch/
Modified-Starch
The Spin Finish Compositions for Polyester
and Polya Ide Yarn
White Oil
Industry Trends and Success Factors
Warp Sizes
Sector of Applications for Sizing Agents
Filament Yarns
Staple or Spun Yarn
Starch/Modified Starch
Demand
Polyvinyl Alcohol
Operations Involved in the Use of the
Textile Chemicals
Classification of Textile Chemicals
Classification Based on Use Pattern
Group Classification
Yarn Lubricants
Spin Finishing Agent

8. GLOBAL SCENARIO FOR
    TEXTILE CHEMICALS

Consumption Pattern of Textile Chemicals
Estimated Global Market for Textile
Chemicals
Estimated Markets for Textile Chemicals in
the Asia-pacific Region (2001)
Estimated Consumption of Textile Chemicals
in Different Regions
Categories of Textile Chemicals Value
(In Millions of Dollars)
Us Market for Textile Chemicals
Industry Trends and Success Factors
Outlook and Opportunities
Oxalic Acid
Polyehtylene Glycol
Applications in Textile Industry
Silicone Oil/ Silicone Emulsion
Indian Demand for Silicone Oil/ Emulsion in
Textile Sector
Industry Trends and Successful Factor
Outlook and Opportunities
Emeu/Dmdheu
Industry Trends and Success Factors
Sulphur Black
Industry Trends and Outlook
Textile Enzymes
Cellulase/Amylase
Classification of Thickening Agent
Pigment Binders
Guar Gum
Sodium Alginate
Sodium/Zinc Formaldehyde Sulphoxylate
Styrene Butadiene Rubber - Lattices
Formaldehyde Based Resins
Industry Trends and Outlook
Indian Scenario
Consumption Pattern of Flame Retardent
Printing Auxiliary

9. YARN PREPARATION
Introduction
Winding
Quill Winding
Warping
Slashing or Warp Sizing
Drawing-In and Tying-In
10. WEAVING AND WOVEN FABRICS
Introduction
Woven Fabrics
Plain Weave
Rib Weaves
Basket Weaves
Twill Weaves
Satin Weaves
Drawing-In Draft, Chain and Reed Plans
Cover Factor
Other Terms Related to Single Fabrics
Weaving
Shedding
Filling Insertion
Beat-up
Warp and Fabric Control
The Weaving Cycle
Woven Fabric Production
Secondary Mechanisms (Motions) In A
Power Loom
Warp Stop Motions
Filling Stop Motions
Warp Protector Motion
Selvage Motion
Box Motion
Automatic Filling Transfer
Shuttleless Looms
Introduction
Rapier Looms
Projectile (Gripper) Looms
Fluid Jet Looms
New Weaving Technologies - Multiple
Shed Looms
Filling Accumulation Systems
Modification of the Salvege
11. KNITTING AND KNIT FABRICS
Introduction
Knitting Elements
Needles and Knitting Action
Sinkers
Weft Knitting
Single Knitting
Single Knit Fabrics
Double Knitting
Double Knit Fabrics
Purl Knit Fabrics
Knit, Tuck and Float Loops
Weft Knit Design
Stitch Notation
Weft Knit Fabrics
Weft Knitted Fabric Production
Warp Knitting
Introduction
Major Machine Classification
Knitting Elements
Warp Knitting Action
Comparison Between Tricot and Raschel
Warp Knit Design
Point Paper Notation
Single Bar Fabric
Two Bar Fabrics
Warp Knit Fabric Production
12. NONCONVENTIONAL FABRICS
Introduction
Nonwoven Systems and Fabrics
Chemically or Adhesively Bonded Fabrics
Mechanically Bonded Fabrics
Tufting
Flocking
Laminated and Bonded Fabrics
Wet Adhesive Bonding
Foam Flame Bonding

13. SYNTHETIC SUBSTRATES
Anthraquinones
Diverse synthetic substrates
Monozao Dyestuffs
Water-Insoluble Monoazo Dyestuffs
Mixture of Monoazo Dyestuffs for
Polyesters
Azo Containing Compounds
Water-Soluble Disazo Dyestuffs for
Polyamides
Gold and Orange Prints on Polyamides
Azocoumarinic Dyes for Hydrophobia
Synthetics
Dyestuffs Tolerant to Temperature and pH
Variations
Printing of Nickel-Containing Polyolefins

14. NATURAL AND SYNTHETIC
    SUBSTRATES
Anthraquinones
Polyfluoro Acid Anthraquinone Dyestuffs for
Polyamides 346
Fibre Reactive Anthraquinone Compounds
Aminoan Thraquinone Reactive Disperse
Dyes
Azo Compounds
Naphtheylene and Tetrahydronaphthylene-
containing Azo Dyestuffs
Monoazo Dyestuff Containing Fiber-Rective
Group
Cold Water soluble Acid Dye Compositions
Polyvalent Metal and Azo-Barbituric Acid
Anionic and Cationic Dyes
Fluid and Stable Dispersions of Anionic
Dyes
Heterocyclic Cationic Dyestuffs
Water-soluble Quaternary Ammonium
Phenylazo Cationic Dyes

15. CELLULOSICS
Reactive Dyes
Organic Dye With Phosphonic Acid
Monofluoride
Aminonaphthyl Azobezene Vinyl Rective
Dyes
Phthalocyanine Reactive Dyestuffs
Water-Soluble Fiber-Reactive Dyestuffs
Disperse Dyes
Fixation With Aliphatic Alcohols, Amines, or
Aminoalcohols
Azo Dyes having Substituted 2,6-Diaminopyridine
Coupling Component
Acylating Cellulose Fibers
16. MIXED FIBERS
Polyester and Wool
Tone-in-Tone Dyeing of Polyester-Wool
Blend
Cellulosics and Synthetic Polyamides
Marked Reactive Dyestuff
Swellable Cellulosics and Synthetics
Ethoxylated Condensate of Monocarboxylic
Acid and Hydroxyalkylamine
Water-soluble Solvent and Swelling Agent
Disazo Dyes Derived from Amino-pyrazole
Unformed Disperse Dye and Swelling Agent
Cellulosics and Synthetics
Unformed Disperse Dye with Reactive Dye
Textile Treated with Epoxy-group-containing
Compounds
Impregnation with an Aqueous
Composition
Blends of Natural and Synthetic Fibers
17. PRINTING COMPOSITIONS
Printing Pastes with Developing Dyes
Improved Base Printing Process
Formic Acid as Developing Medium for
Azo Dyes
Auxiliary Agents in Print Formulations
Hydroxyalkyl Carboxyalkyl Cellulose
Thickening Agent
Sodium Cellulose Sulfate as Thickening
and Acid Fixing Agent
Additive for Pigmentary Printing Pastes
Salts of Diaryl Ether Sulfonic Acids
Carrier for Cationic Dyes
Dye Carrier Comprising Phenyl Cyclohexane
and Derivatives
18. PRINTING PROCESSES
Fixation
Fixation with Vapor of Organic Solvent
Dyestuffs for Methylene Chloride Fixation
Processes
Improved Fixation of Reactive Dyes on
Cellulose Fibers
Continuous Dyeing and Printing of Piece
Goods
Printing Heavy Pile Fabrics with Powder
Preparations
Improved Alignment of Printed Patterns
Uniform Heat-setting of Continuous Synthetic
Filament Groups
Voluminous Substrate Rolled up with
Foramed Dye
Continuous Printing Process by Direct Liquid
Film Transfer Method for Printing
and Flocking
Simultaneously
Sprayed Carriers for Continuous Print
Fixation

19. TRANSFER DYES
Anthraquinones
Anthraquinone Ink Formulation
Anthraquinone Dyes for Synthetics
Deep Yellow Colors on Polyesters
Indolenine Methines for Acid-modified
Synthetics
Heterocyclic Naphthalene Derivatives
Printing Polyacrylonitriles with Disperse
Dyes
Disperse Dyes Containing Carboxylic Acid
Groups
Hydrolyzable Silyl-substituted Dyestuffs
Nitroacridone Dyestuffs
Heat Transfer Black Dyestuff A
Heat Transfer Black Dyestuff B
Dyestuff Combinations for Long-Pile
Fabrics
20. TRANSFER INKS
Organic Base
Cationic Dyes in Organic Solvents
Carbinol Base of Cationic Dyestuff as
Dyestuff Intermediate
These Inks are Characterized in that they
contain at Least
Sublimable Dyestuff Base on Acid-Modified
Fibres
Aqueous and Oil in Water
Aqueous Preparations of Sparingly Soluble
Dyestuffs
Organic-aqueous Printing Inks
Water-dilutable Transfer Ink Compositions
Dry Preparation
Hot-Melt and Hot-Stamp Inks
Hot-Melt Ink Composition
N-Methoxymethylated Nylon Copolymer for
Hot-Stamp Ink
Production of Transfer Paper By Rotary
Screen Printing
Transfer Inks for Household Use
Inks of High Filler Content
UV-curable Inks For Offset-printing
Transfers
21. TEMPORARY CARRIERS
Base Materials for Carriers
Sulfurized Paper Supports
Porous Sheets for Continous Printing
Foam Sheets as Temporary Carriers
Composite Sheets
Elastomeric Laminates for Stretchable
Fabrics
Transfer Sheets for Cotton and
Cotton Blends
Release Layer
Thermoplastic Polymers and Plasticizers
For Improved Performance
Improve Dye Penetration in Piled Fabrics
Improved Transferability of Basic Dyes
Alkalizing Agents for Cationic Dyes
For special effects
Blocking Agent for Obtaining Designs
22. TRANSFER PROCESSES
Fixation of Amino- or Hydroxy-Containing
Dyestuffs
Diisocyanate Fixation of Azo Dyestuffs
Fixation with Monoisocyanates
Wet Transfer
Pretreatment with a Coacervating Agent
Treatment with swelling agents
Polyhydric Alcohols for Cellulosics
Oil-Soluble Dyes on Swollen Cellulosics
Treatment with resins and crosslinking
Agents
Crosslinking Pretreatment for Cellulosics
Treating Cellulose with Hexamethoxy-
Methylmelamine
Dye Solvents with Crosslinking Function
Natural Fibers Impregnated with
Thermosetting Resin Precondensate
Pretreatment of Wool and Cellulosics
Treatment of Dyes
Disperse Dyes with Improved Printing
Properties
Other processes
Hydrophilic Material Treated with Metal-
Yielding Compound 551
Water-Repellent Fabric Receptive to
Printing
Reactive Disperse Dyes on Hydrophilic/
Synthetic Fiber Blends
Gas-Fading Inhibitor for Acetate Materials
Transfer Techniques
Heat Flux for Improved Dye Penetration
Transfer Sheet Adjacent Back of Carpet
Sublimable Dyes Printed on Carpet Backing
Porous Member as Shade-Control Means
for Carpets
Photographic Technique with Density
Compensations
23. TRANSFER EQUIPMENT
Continuous Processes
Continuous Dry Transfer
Printing of Discrete Piece Goods on
Rotary Drum Printers
Simultaneous Bonding and Printing of
Fabric
Platens and Press Plates
Press Platen Means for Sublimatic
Transfers
Heat Transfer Press
Contact-Pressure Regulating Devices
Pressure Applicators for Wet Transfers
Electrostatic Adherence of Support and
Substrate
Uniform Transfer on Pressure-Sensitive
Substrates
Spacer Device for Maintaining Laminar
Flow
Air-permeable Pressure Belt
Printing of Yarns
Transfer Printing of Textile Yarn
Any Suitable Transfer Conditions may be
Employed
Printing of Yarns in Space-Dyed Pattern
Delayed Separation of Transfer Paper
and Yarn
Special Effects
Thermoprinting and Embossing
Successively
Thermoprinting and Embossing
Simultaneously
Transfer to Sealed Areas on Laminated
Textile
Edge-printing Flare-Pleated Garment Pieces
Printing on Opposite Faces of Gray Goods
Others
Plurality of Adjacent Carrier Belts
Needle-Bearing Support
Rolling Up Webs with a Conductor
Vacuum Chamber with Vacuum Cap
Pressure Differential for Improved Dye
Penetration

22. THE TAPESTRY AND CARPET INDUSTRY

23. DIRECTORY SECTION

ANCILLARY EQUIPMENT & SERVICES
SEWING MACHINERY
TEXTILE MACHINERY
RESEARCH INSTITUTES &
TESTING LABORATORIES
DIRECTORY OF INDIAN TEXTILE
CHEMICAL PRODUCTS
DYES & CHEMICALS

^ Top

PROCESS PREPARATORY TO SPINNING

In the foregoing chapter the various principles of spinning have been fully considered on the supposition that both long and short fibres of various classes were available for spinning. No account, however, was taken of the fact that in no case, with the partial exception of silk, are either the long or short fibres of commerce found naturally in a condition suitable for being spun into yarn. In fact, the variation in length in most materials necessitates a combing operation to classify the fibres which may be satisfactorily spun together, long spinning well with long, and short with short, but not long with short. Again, all contain either impurities natural to their growth or accidental impurities which get into the mass of fibres and must be removed before spinning can be attempted. In the first class the cortical substance in flax, the gums in China-grass, the yolk in wool, the gum in silk and the seeds in cotton, may be cited. In the second-class water, beyond a certain amount, in flax, wool, and cotton; and burrs, seeds, straw, and sand in wool may be cited. Whatever the impurity be, it is usually necessary to remove it with the least possible damage to the fibre and to leave the fibre in a condition for being spun into a good useful yarn as already defined.

The processes preparatory to spinning are very varied, naturally being suited to each particular fibre. The principles involved, however, are all comprised in the following machines, the action of which will be described after the natural requirements of the various fibres have been considered.

MACHINE	MATERIALS FOR WHICH EMPLOYED
The Gin	For cotton
The Washing or Scouring Machine	Wools and hairs
The Dryer	Wools, hairs, etc.
The Scutcher	(a) For cotton.
	(b) For flax.
The Backwasher	Worsted slivers and tops.
The Gill-box	Long wools and silk (modified form).
The Carder	Medium and short wools and cotton
The Dresser	Waste silk and China-grass.
The Comb	Wool, cotton, and sometimes silk and China-grass.
The Drawing-Box	Wool, cotton, and silk.
The Cone Drawing-Box	Wool and cotton
The French Gill or Drawing-Box	Short wools.

The important points to study about these machines are, firstly, the principle underlying their construction; secondly, the way the material should be prepared for presentation to these machines; and, thirdly, the way in which these machines should deliver the material ready for the ensuing process or processes. Before dealing with these points, however, the natural requirements of each fibre should be considered, as it must always be the fibre which decides the type of preparing machine-even iron and steel must conform to soft cotton and wool, lustrous silk and harsh China-grasss. Thus in the preparation of cotton and wool for spinning on the short-fibre principle good carding is so important that the resultant spin may absolutely be said to depend upon it. In the preparation of flax and certain other vegetable fibres for spinning on the long-fibre principle satisfactory retting, scutching and dressing are equally important. In the preparation of long animal fibres such as English wool, mohair, and alpaca, as also in the case of the "combed" cottons, an averaging of the fibres by means of the operation of combing-which in turn has its preparatory processes in the form of carding or preparing-is necessary to ensure a satisfactory spin. It is obviously impossible to say that any one process is the most important in the sequence; each operation must be worked to the best advantage if good results are to be finally attained.

FOUR METHODS OF PREPARING VEGETABLE FIBRES FOR SPINNING

To ensure satisfactory results in the spinning it has been found necessary to employ at least four distinct methods of preparation for the various types of vegetable fibres, each of these methods having been naturally evolved through experience with the respective fibres to which each is best suited. These four methods are as follows: -

1. Air-blast Preparation

This is chiefly employed for cottons, being the main principle of the openers, scutchers, and perhaps not altogether inactive in the carders. The initial stages of the preparation are usually followed by carding, sometimes combing (as explained in the chapter on the Cotton Industry), and then drawing as directly preparatory to spinning.

2. Retting Preparation

This is chiefly employed for flax and a few analogous fibres, in which the fermentation due to steeping in peaty water, or perhaps "dew retting," is sufficient to destroy the cortical substance in the flax stems and thus render fairly free the fibrous portion. Scutching to further loosen any cortical particles still adhering, and dressing, complete the cleaning preparation of the fibres, which are then got into sliver form, as in the case of long wools, etc., and finally drawn and spun on the long-fibre principle as already explained.

3. Scraping Preparation

This method is employed for such fibres as Ramie and China-grass, in which no form of retting is altogether satisfactory, probably owing to the gums which act as firm binding or integrating agents. Not only is a good scraping in running water usually necessary, but "degumming" by means of caustic soda or other reagents is also necessary later. Once the "filasse" is in a really fibrous and clean state it may be treated somewhat on the flax principle, or, better still, on what is known as the "spun silk principle," in which an averaging up of the fibres is effected by a process known as "dressing" followed by sliver forming arrangements similar to those employed for long wool, and spinning on the long fibre principle.

The Noble comb is sometimes employed in place of the dressing frame, but is not nearly so effective.

4. Artificial Preparation

As artificial silk spinning is here in question and as most artificial silks are formed from vegetable matter, such processes should claim consideration here. The spinning referred to is not really spinning, it is rather a drawing-out of a prepared wood or cotton pulp into a fine filament which, hardening on exposure to the air or by special treatment, thus becomes a fine strand and is later twisted or "thrown" with other strands to form in turn a true thread. As the later principles involved are those of silk throwing no further description is here called for. It is interesting to note, however, that artificial flax is now being placed on the market, and no doubt other varieties of such fibres or filaments will follow.

Fig. 1 - Stages in Woollen Yarn Spinning. A, wool to be blended with cotton B; C, blend of oiled wool from Fern aught; D, blend from scribbler; E, blend in rope form from intermediate card; F, condensed slivers; G, mule-spun thread.

FOUR METHODS OF PREPARING ANIMAL FIBRES FOR SPINNING

As animal fibres are usually delivered into the hands of the spinner in a fibrous state, their preparation is different from that of flax, etc.; on the one hand by reason of the absence of the necessity for mechanical treatment, and on the other hand in that certain adhering impurities must be removed by certain chemical or chemico-physical operations, the washing or scouring of the wool, etc., being the chief of these. This operation of scouring, however-take what care one will-frequently so mats the wool or hair that special machines must be employed to disentangle it and constitute it into a sliver suitable for spinning from on the short-fibre principle or a sliver suitable for spinning from on the long-fibre principle.

The four methods of preparation employed for wool and hairs are as follows:

1. The Woollen Method

In this case willowing, teasing, scribbling, and carding result in the wool being delivered as a broad continuous film-with fibres perfectly distributed-to the condenser which breaks the broad film of, say, 48 to 72 inches up into 60 to 120 pith-like filaments-not threads, as there is no twist in them-which are continuously wound on to the condenser bobbins, which in turn are transferred to the mule to be spun into threads by additional draft and twist.

2. The Botany Worsted Method

Fine, fairly short wools which later may be spun on the long-fibre principle are carded to obtain an even distribution of the fibres in the sliver delivered from the card. But the carding operation no doubt tends in part to arrange the fibres longitudinally in the sliver, being aided in this by the way in which the sliver is drawn off the machine as compared with the delivery of the sliver from a woollen card. The combing operation now follows, being undertaken with the idea of taking away the short fibres, termed "noil," and thus leaving in the slivers to be spun only the fibres of a good average length. Gill-boxes and drawing-boxes then effect the "straightening" necessary before spinning can be satisfactorily undertaken, the two principles of "doublings" and "draft" being applied with the idea of obtaining a level sliver which will spin out to the required count. The excess of draft over doublings gives the reduction in thickness of sliver. The knowing when to double and when to draft to obtain level slivers is still only imperfectly understood.

3. The English Worsted Method

Long wools and hairs such as mohair, alpaca, etc., are treated on this system, although it is well to note that there is a marked tendency to prepare by carding much longer wools than was formerly the case. These long-fibred materials are gilled as a preparation for combing and combed on the Lister or Noble comb. Gill-boxes and drawing-boxes then effect the necessary "straightening" prior to spinning, doubling and drafting being applied very much as in the case of Botany wools, but as a rule there are fewer operations.

Fig. 2 and 2A - Stages in Wool Combing and Worsted Yarn Spinning

4. The French Worsted Method

The shortest and finest Botany wools are prepared for spinning on this method, the principle being that the wool is treated in an open condition without twist by drafting rollers throughout, twist being unnecessary. Of course special support and control of the wool during drafting and a special form of delivery are necessary. The worsted mule almost invariably forms the climax to this method, although there is a question as to whether spinning on the cap principle may not yield economical and useful results.

TWO METHODS OF SILK PREPARATION

The special characteristics of silk are its gumminess and its "slipperiness." These two factors play an important part in deciding the processes through which the fibre shall pass. The two great methods of preparation are designed for the "net" silks and the "waste" silks respectively, the "net" silks requiring a "continuous fibre process" and the waste silks simply a "long-fibre process."

Fig. 3 - Graphic Illustration of Net Silk Yarns

Fig. 4 - Spun Silk Drafts (the horizontal divisions = 1 inch). A, B, C, D, E, and F are 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th drafts; G, the shorts, and H the noil

1. The Continuous Fibre Silk Process

In this case the fibre is simply reeled fom the cocoon its full length, cleaned, softened, and "thrown" with other fibres, twist being inserted according to requirements, quantity and direction being important matters to attend to. In this case the preparation for the spinning of "throwing" is very similar to the actual throwing operation. Degumming is effected with soap and hot water, and may be carried out either after spinning or advantageously after weaving, as the silk gum strengthens the thread and results in better work right away through the processes. The necessity for dyeing and the difficulty of degumming certain fabrics result in large quantities of silk being woven in the degummed form.

2. The Long-Fibre Silk Process

In this case the fibres, although long-say 8 inches to 12 inches-are not continuous. They may be prepared and got into farily satisfactory sliver form by rollers and gills (which are usually of the intersecting type to control them better), but to spin them satisfactorily the fibres must be averaged up on the dressing-frame-i.e., separated, say, into seven lots or "drafts," as they are termed, according to the length of fibre, the first draft being, say, 12 inches, the second 10 inches, and so on. The slippery nature of the silk fibre necessitates its treatment on the "dressing-frame"; in fact, this fibre has given rise to the dressing-frame, which now is not only employed for silk, but also very largely for China-grass.

The still shorter or real waste silk may be again carded up and prepared and spun upon the Botany worsted method.

Fig. 5 - Stages in China Grass Spinning. A, stem of Bœhmeria Tenacissima ; B, decorticated fibrous mass ; C, degummed and bleached filasse ; D, dressed filasse ; E, shorts ; F, noil ; G, sliver from spreader ; H and I, slivers from intermediate boxes;J, the roving ; and A the spun thread.

TYPICAL EXAMPLE OF THE METHOD OF PREPARING AND SPINNING A TEXTILE MATERIAL (CHINA-GRASS OR RAMIE)

Ramie Manufacture: Order of Processes

1a. Decorticating usually on plantation while stems are green.

1. Boiling with caustic soda, etc.
2. Bleaching-ordinary method.
3. Washing.
4. Hydro-extracting.
5. Heat drying-without confusion of "fibre-bundles."
6. Roller-softening. Through rollers-6 inches forward, 3 inches backward, etc.
7. Carding and fibre cutting process. 18 combs. Cuts at 7¾ inches.
8. Dressing between 32 corks on flat dressing-frame with stripping drums.
9. Spreading or gilling (intersecting gills). Lap-drum 3 feet in diameter. Ratch=11 inches to 12 inches. Fallery occupy space of 8 inches. Two passages.
10. Gilling (ordinary). Ratch 11 inches to 12 inches. Fallery occupy space of 8 inches.
11. Drawing on open-gill-4 heads. Ratch 11 inches to 12 inches. Fallers, occupy space of 8 inches.
12. Roving on 40-spindle frame. 1 sliver up. Ratch 10 inches to 11 inches. Fallers occupy space of 7¼ inches.
13. Doubling on 60-spindle frame. 2 to 4 slivers up. Carriers in place of gills.
14. Hot water spinning on 300-spindle ring frame. Ratch of 10 inches.
15. Dry twisting on 272-spindle ring frame.
16. Gassing on gassing frame.
17. Reeling.
18. Bundling.

PREPARATORY MACHINES

Each of the machines previously mentioned must now be briefly described, when the reader will no doubt be able to adjust the requirements of any particular fibre to the mechanical principles of any required machine, or vice versâ.

THE COTTON GIN

This machine in its simplest form consists of a roller with a broad steel blade sprung against it. The roller draws the cotton round between itself and the blade, and the seeds, being large and hard, instead of following are freed from the cotton fibre and drop off into a receptacle arranged for them.

Fig. 6 - Cotton Gin.

THE WASHING OR SCOURING MACHINE

This primarily consists of a bowl for holding the heated scouring liquor in which the wool is to be cleansed by immersion. This appears very simple, but a few moments, thought will show that some complexity is inevitable. The liquor must be maintained at a definite heat, hence steam must be laid on; it will also be advisable to lay on water, soap liquor and possibly alkali, so that perfect control of the temperature, heat, and strength of the liquor is obtained.

The yolk, sand, dirt, etc., got out of the wool must be disposed of. Thus, satisfactory means of emptying the bowls must be adopted; drain pipes being suitably fixed to the bowl or bowls to deliver the liquor to the settling or waste product tanks.

But, again, during the operation of scouring the dirt and grease, etc., should be got away from the wool entering the bowl, this being usually effected by the settling which takes place by floating the liquor out with the wool and arranging for a tank at the side for the grease, sand, dirt, etc., to settle into, but so constructed that it may be readily cleaned out.

The propelling of the wool from one end of the tank to the other and especially taking it out of the machine are also matters which require very careful thought and arrangement.

Fig. 7 - Section of Single Macarthy Cotton Gin

Scouring sets now frequently consist of four or five machines giving about 60 to 80 feet of bowl, in which the wool is immersed on an average for about eight minutes.

It may be interesting here to give a brief résumé of the evolution through which wool scouring has passed.

The first idea was to pass the wool rapidly through the scouring liquor; this matted the wool, prevented perfect scouring, and resulted in bad work throughout all subsequent processes.

Then the idea of forcing the scouring liquor through the wool was tried, with a very similar result.

Then it was realized that the natural tendency of wool to open out when placed in water-when the surface tension was removed-must be made the basis of wool scouring, and the wool was floated along with the scouring liquor.

Then the idea of a wet nip or "possers" was tried and found wanting, a wet nip apparently nipping dirt into the wool.

Finally it was realized that a combination of circumstances and conditions was necessary, that attention must be paid to all points, and the bearing of one point upon another fully taken account of. Thus were evolved the sets of modern wool-scouring machines in which the necessary agitation may be obtained, but which deliver the wool free, clean and wonderfully dry.

Fig. 8 - The Cotton Scutcher

Modifications of wool-scouring machines to effect "wool steeping," and thereby reclaim the valuable potash salts, are also placed upon the market.

THE DRYER

There are several forms of drying machine, such being necessary in the case of English and cross-bred wools after scouring and also useful in such operations as carbonizing. The drying machine has followed an evolution similar to the scouring machine. The material to be dried has been held and air forced through it-as in the case of the table dryer; the material to be dried has been carried into the drying air, and last, and perhaps best of all, the mean between the two has been adopted as in the latest form of McNaught dryer.

Fig. 9 - Section of Single Cotton Scutcher.

THE COTTON SCUTCHER

This is a machine to thoroughly disintegrate and clean the cotton prior to carding. Briefly it consists of "cage" rollers upon which the cotton is blown, which pass it forward until eventually it is delivered as a lap. Suitably arranged "grids" allow sand and heavy foreign matters to drop out of the air currents; thus the cotton is fairly well cleaned and freed prior to carding.

THE FLAX SCUTCHER

This is a machine to beat and break the flax straw after retting so that it is in a suitable state for the dressing frame. It is practically a "breaker" of the flax straw and also a partial cleanser.

Fig. 10 - The Flax Scutcher.

THE BACKWASHER

This machine usually consists of two small washing or scouring tanks, drying cylinders, and a straightening gill-box. It is made in several forms, for each type certain constructional advantages or advantages for the material treated being claimed. It is employed either before or after combing to thoroughly clean worsted slivers or "tops," for not only does the wool become sullied in passing through the several preparing machines, but impurities which cannot be extracted in the scouring bowls have revealed themselves and may here be conveniently got rid of. The process of "blueing" to give a white appearance to the slivers or tops is frequently resorted to, and is usually affected on the backwasher. The latest innovation in this machine is the adoption of hot air drying in place of cylinder drying.

Fig. 11 - The Backwasher with Hot-air Drying

THE PREPARING GILL-BOX

This consists of a pair of back rollers, gills or fallers riding on screws, and front rollers, with feed sheet and lap, balling-head or can delivery. The action on the wool may be either a combing action or principally a drawing action. For example, when wool is much matted the fallers, working quicker than the back rollers, comb out the fibres and deliver them to the front rollers, which should be set to the fallers. But when the material has been much worked and is fairly straight, the faller-pins simply slip through the fibres and consequently can only act as supports between back and front rollers; in other words, the operation becomes largely a drawing operation.

As pointed out with reference to cotton, the distance apart of drawing rollers, size of rollers, etc., must be very carefully considered. With wool the ratch or distance between back rollers and fallers or back rollers and front rollers is equally important, but as the wool fibre is so much larger than the cotton fibre the size of the rollers need only be taken into account from a wear and tear and possibly from the grip and weighting points of view.

Fig. 12 - Plan and Elevation of Sheeter Gill-box. A, back rollers; B, fallers set with pins (gills) ; C, front rollers ; D, sheeting leathers ; E, train of wheels driving front rollers ; F, train of wheels driving back rollers ; G, screws driving the fallers or gills.

Fig. 12A - Four-head French Gill-box in Plan and Elevation. A, creel; B, back drafting rollers; C, pinned fallers or gills; D, front drafting rollers; E, balling head

Fig. 13 - Self-cleaning, Flat Cotton Carder, illustrating the Evolution from the Early Form of Card to the Revolving Flat Card

The Preparing Gill-box may be best considered as an admirable straightener for wool and the various long animal fibres, and also as a mixer for fibres of varying qualities or colours.

THE CARDER

This machine has been evolved from the hand-cards, such as are still used in the home industries of Scotland and Ireland. The first step towards an automatic card was made when a cylinder-which might be turned by hand-was clothed with card clothing and the wool worked between this cylinder and a flat card held in the hand. This early form of card gave rise to the flat and the revolving flat cards still largely employed in the cotton trade. Finally the whole of the carding was affected by cards mounted upon chlinders, and after many trials, involving both successes and failures, the modern roller card was evolved. It is here interesting to note that, owing to the susceptibility of cotton to air blasts, the cotton roller card is invariably made narrow and enclosed more than is the wool card: while, as a matter of fact, probably due to this, and also to the fibre length, the flat card seems the favourite for cotton.

In working carding machinery there are two main points to be attended to, viz., the satisfactory carding of the material and the designing and arrangements of the various parts to work to the greatest advantage with the least possible wear and tear. The satisfactory carding of the material depends in the first place upon the principle upon which the card works. This in the case of the roller card is as follows: - The swift acts as the main carrying cylinder constantly endeavouring to pass the wool forward, but is opposed by the teeth of the workers, which, acting as a sort of sieve, do not allow material to pass them until it is finely divided up. Thus from beginning to end of a card the workers should be set closer and closer-the first worker a fair way off, the last close to the wires of the swift, but never touching. Thus material is really worked by material. The material is condensed or "doubled" on the workers and then elongated or drafted by the strappers, and again by the swift stripping from the strippers. This is the carding operation; feed-rollers, licker-in, fancy and doffer being the means of conducting wool into and out of the machine. It will be noticed that the satisfactory accomplishment of the operation just described depends upon (a) the surface speeds of the rollers, which in part necessarily incluence the size of these rollers; (b) the direction in which the rollers revolve; (c) the inclination or bend of the card teeth; and (d) upon the relative density of the card-teeth with which the various rollers are clothed. The wear and tear upon a card depends largely upon the size of the rollers, and of course upon the practical setting.

The material of which the cards are built is of course another important matter, but ordinary engineering principles here apply. Iron is more stable than wood but is readily broken, while wood is more convenient but does not long remain "true." The following diagrams and lists will illustrate the principles of carding and of satisfactorily clothing the card cylinders.

FIG. 14 - ILLUSTRATING THE SIZES OF CYLINDERS IN CARDS FOR CARDING VARIOUS QUALITIES OF WOOL

FIG. 15 - GRAPHIC ILLUSTRATION OF THE SURFACE OF SPEED OF THE MAIN CYLINDERS IN A, LOW MUNGO CARD; B, WOOLLEN CARD; AND C, WORSTED CARD

FIG. 16 - GRAPHIC ILLUSTRATION OF THE WIRE CLOTHING OF THE MAIN CYLINDERS IN A, LOW MUNGO CARD; B, WOOLLEN CARD; AND C, WORSTED CARD

FIG. 17 - SILK DRESSING FRAME

THE DRESSER

This machine takes the place of the comb when the material is (a) too rough, as in the case of flax, to be satisfactorily combed; or (b) too slippery, as in the case of silk and china-grass, to be satisfactorily combed.

Briefly, it consists of a series of boards, books or holders between which one end of the material to be dressed is firmly clamped and held; a framework upon which these boards may be fixed so as to be carried continuously into the machine or placed in the machine and withdrawn when necessary; and a series of cleansing combs with cleaning or noil arrangements so that they may work to the greatest advantage.

The material may be presented upwards to the combs as in the case of silk, or downwards as in the case of flax. In the case of silk dressing the operation is undertaken more with the idea of averaging the fibres into the several different "drafts"; in the case of flax the operation partakes more of a cleansing character.

THE COMB

While combing may in part be said to be based upon the idea of averaging up the fibres, still more truly may it be said to consist in combing out all fibres under a certain length, leaving the long or top wool to form what is termed the "top" and the short to form "noil". Along with combing, as with dressing, must go a straightening operation; in fact, in the days of the hand comb, the second combing was termed "straightening."

Fig. 18 - Position of Large and Two Small Circles in the Noble Comb

Fig. 18A - Self-supporting Noble Comb, latest Form

There are two types of comb in use, the horizontal circular and the vertical circular. The Noble comb is the best representation of the horizontal circular. The combing operation here is based upon the drawing out of the long fibres between the diverging circles until the one having the shortest end as it were leaves go, leaving the long fibres hanging on the outside of the small circle and the inside of the large circle, from which they are drawn off by suitably placed rollers. The noil in the meantime has been held within the pins, and ultimately is taken off from between the pins of the small circles by what are known as noil knives. The pinning of Noble comb circles should be definitely based upon the diameter of the pin and the space to leave in between for the fairly free running of the fibres-say, one-fourth pin to three-fourths space.

Fig. 19 - Pricking from a Long Wool Noble Comb Circle. Note - For a Botany Comb the "set over" for A is 5/8", the "set over" for B is ".

As the satisfactory holding of the fibres by the pins is the basis of the Noble comb, it will be realized that, not only must the distance apart and thickness of the pins be taken into account, but also the set-over or space over which the pins are set.

Fig. 19A - View of Wool Fibre in the Pins of a Noble Comb. Drawn to scale.

Fig. 20 - Plan & Elevation of a Drawing - box

Fig. 21 - Cone Drawing Box

The Heilman comb in its various forms is the best example of the vertical circular comb. Briefly, it consists of a pair of jaws to hold a tuft of fibres, a comb cylinder to comb one end of this tuft, a pair of rollers to take hold of the combed end, combs through which the uncombed end may be drawn and thus combed, and a continuous lap forming arrangement. As in most combs the operation of combing must be more or less gradual, the comb cylinder here employed has the first row of teeth fairly openly set, the next closer, and so on, the finest being set about 60 per inch for wool and about 80 for cotton. There is also a preparation of the sliver for combing prior to the jaws referred to coming into action.

THE DRAWING-BOX

This is similar in many respects to the gill-box, but lacks the gills or fallers, their place being taken by carriers which support the wool between back and front rollers. The distance between back and front rollers is usually somewhat greater than the length of the longest fibre being treated, so that in part fibre may be said to be worked by fibre.

Fig. 22 - French Drawing Frame in Plan and Elevation - A, back drafting rollers; B, porcupine; C, front drafting rollers; D, rubbing leathers; E, balling head

THE CONE DRAWING-BOX.

So far as the drawing action of this box is concerned the action is the same as in the ordinary box. As remarked, however, with reference to the scouring machine, the getting of the material into the machine and out of the machine again may be no trifling matter; in fact it may be and in this case is more of a problem than the main operation itself. To put the matter briefly-in a cone-box the material is positively wound on to suitable sized bobbins with practically no strain upon it, while in the case of the ordinary drawing-box twist must be put into the sliver to give it sufficient strength to pull the bobbin round. It is thus evident that with a coneregulated wind-on two great advantages accrue-firstly, the slivers may be drawn much softer and thus a better final spin obtained, and less consumption of power in the machine be required; and secondly, larger bobbins may be employed, resulting in more economical working, especially for large quantities. It is also interesting to note that as both flyer and bobbin are positively driven, bobbin may lead flyer instead of flyer leading the bobbin as ordinarily obtains. The relative advantages of these two methods are worthy of careful consideration.

Fig. 22A - Enlarged View of principal parts in a French Drawing-box

It is interesting to note that with the cone frame the limit of the strength of the sliver is not in the winding on to the bobbin, but in the pulling of the sliver or roving off the bobbin.

THE FRENCH DRAWING-BOX

This consists of back-rollers (A), porcupine or circular gill or fibre controller (B), front rollers (C), rubbing leathers (D), and delivering head (E). No twist is here inserted, so that a pithlike thread is produced. The arrangement enables doubling and drafting to be effected most readily, and practically does away with the necessity for gills working on screws. The value of this method of producing soft spin mixtures has probably not yet been fully realized in this country.

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