1. Popcorn and Other Cereal Products
Popcorn
Other Corn Ingredients
Wheat-based Ingredients
Rice
Rye
Sorghum
2. Fats, Oils, Emulsifiers and Antioxidants
Natural Fats and Oils
Processing Vegetable Oils
Analytical Tests Applied to Shortenings
Specifications and Quality Assurance
Frying Fats
Emulsifiers
Antioxidants
3. Sweeteners
Invert Syrups
Molasses
Brown Sugar
Other Sweeteners
4. Dairy Products
Fluid Milk Products
Concentrated Milk Products
Dried Milk Products
Cheese
5. Salt
Manufacture of Salt
Salt with Additives
Storage and Packing
Salt Requirements for Snacks
6. Water
Public Health Service Drinking Water Standards
Analyses of Water
Water Treatment
7. Nuts and Fruits
Nuts
Fruits
8. Vegetable Ingredients
Potatoes
Onions
Other Plant Products
9. Flavours and Colours
Flavours
Colours

PART - II PRODUCT AND PROCESSES
10. Potato Chips
Potato Chips Processing
Quality Factors
Storage Stability
11. Meat-based Snacks
Popped Pork Rinds
Pickled Snacks
12. Snacks-based on Popcorn
Factors affecting the quality of Popcorn
Popping Procedures
Caramel Corn and Other Popcorn Snacks
13. Puffed Snacks
Formulation and Procedures
Addition of Flavours and Colours
14. Corn Chips and Simulated Potato Chips
Corn Chips
Simulated Potato Chips
15. Baked Snacks
Salty-savory Baked Snacks
Sweet Baked Snacks
16. Nut-based Snacks
Peanuts
Other Nuts
Sugared and Spiced Nuts

PART - III EQUIPMENTS
17. Extruding Equipments
Extruder Function
Using Extruders to make Snacks
Extruder Design and Operation
Commercially Available Extruding Equipments
Complete Plants
Special Processes
18. Equipments for Frying, Baking and Drying
Heat Transfer Mechanism
Ovens
Electronic Ovens
Driers
Toasting Ovens
Frying
Specialized Snack Fying Equipment
19. Specialized Equipment for Popcorn Processing
Poppers
Sifters
Coaters
Caramel Corn Plants
20. Specialized Equipment for Potato Chip
Processing
Receiving and Cleaning Potatoes
Peelers
Slicers
Slice Washers and Conditioners
Fryers
Vacuum Finishing of Potato Chips
Microwave Drying
Addition of Salt and Seasonings
Sorting Potato Chips by Size
Protecting the Environment
21. Packaging Materials
Type of Containers
Special Feature for Some Snack Packages
Testing Films
Legal Considerations
22. Packaging Equipments
Folding Cartons
Preformed Pouches
Form-Fill Seal Equipment
Inner-lined Containers and Rotoseal Machines
Automatic Case Packaging for Flexible Bags
Milk Carton Types
Packaging Nut Meats
23. Miscellaneous Equipments
Nut Processing Equipment
Oil, Powder and Granule Applicators
Transfer and Storage Equipment
Weighing
PART - IV TECHNICAL FUNCTIONS
24. Product Development
Introduction
Mission and Objectives
Administration of Product Development
Systematizing New Product Development
Conducting Development Work
Packaging Development
25. Quality Control
Quality Control or Quality Assurance
The Mission of Quality Control
The Extent of the Concern of Quality Control
The Position of Quality Control in the Organisation
Function of Quality Control Department
Promoting a Quality Conscious Attitude in
other Departments
Keeping Records
Establishing Standards and Specifications
Sampling
Sanitation
Supervision
HACCP Studies
Recalls
Compliance
Utilization of OUTSIDE Laboratories
26. Nutritional Supplementation
Recommended Daily Allowances
Vitamins
Minerals
Proteins
Other Nutrients

PART - V DIRECTORY SECTION
27. Addresses of Manufacturers/Suppliers of Raw Materials/Ingredients
28. Addresses of Machinery Equipments Manufacturers/Suppliers

^ Top

BAKED SNACKS

Nearly all types of baked foods are suitable for use as "snacks", but certain types are more typical examples of this category because they are consumed almost exclusively outside normal meal periods. Pretzels, many kinds of crackers, and most cookies fit into the snack usage pattern. It is this type of product that will be discussed in the present chapter.

Because of space limitations, the discussions will be restricted to rather general treatments of formulation theory and of processing methods, with a few examples of formulas for some of the more important items.

SALTY-SAVORY BAKED SNACKS

Soda Crackers

Soda crackers and variants such as saltines, oyster crackers, etc., are themselves used as snack foods and also serve as the basis of combination snack foods either made in the home (e.g., crackers and cheese) or by manufacturers (cheese crackers, peanut butter and cracker sandwiches, etc.).

The soda cracker is made from a "lean" fermented dough. It does not contain much shortening, sugar, or milk. Table 32 summarizes the range and average composition of several published formulas. Since flour may be present to the extent of 80% or more of the finished product, its qualities are the principal controlling factors in machining quality of the dough. It is also an important texture determinant. However, due to the bland flavour, it does not supply, except in unusual circumstances, the dominant flavour note, even in unsalted crackers. Appearance, insofar as it can be separated from machining response, is also considerably affected by ingredients other than flour.

The specifications of flours suitable for cracker production are narrower than those for flours intended for cookies. The sponge flour should be relatively strong and unbleached, with an ash of 0.39-0. 42%, a protein content of 8.5-10.0%, and an acid viscosity value somewhere in the range of 60º to 90º M, the exact value depending on the product and the conditions. The dough flour should be weaker, with an ash of about 0.40%, a protein content of 8.0-9.0%, and an acid viscosity reading of 55° to 60°M.

Table 32. Soda Cracker Formulas

[td colspn=3 align=center]Range

	Average	High	Low
Sponge ingredients,(lb)
flour	70	80	60
yeast	0.23	0.5	0.06
water	30	34	28
shortening	4	8	0
diastatic malt	0.02	0.1	0
Sponge time, (hr)	18	20	16
Dough ingredients,(lb)
flour	30	40	20
	shortening	5.8	10	0
salt	1.4	1.6	1.25
sodium bicarbonate	0.63	0.7	0.52
malt syrup	0.92	1.5	0
water	0.8	2	0
Totals
flour	100	100	100
yeast	0.23	0.5	0.06
water	31	34	29.5
shortening	9.5	10.5	8
malt	0.02	0.1	0
malt syrup	0.92	1.5	0
salt	1.4	1.6	1.25
sodium bicarbonate	0.63	0.7	0.52
Fermentation
time, hr	4	5	3
temperature, (°F)	82	84	80

Cookie bake tests are suitable for evaluating some of the properties of cracker flours, but they do not give enough weight to the gluten strength factor, since the conditions of the test allow little opportunity for gluten development. Mixograph and pup loaf teats may be valuable, especially if a long series of results from supplies by the same miller are available for comparison.

Strong flours tend to increase oven spring, but the crackers are often tougher. Weak flours lead to a lesser amount of spring and to a tender, more friable cracker. The effect of fermentation is to mellow the gluten. Weak flours and lengthy fermentation combine to yield flat, tender crackers.

Flour for thick saltines (120 count) should be stronger than that for thin crackers (160 to 170). The thicker crackers need a sponge flour of about 9.0-10.5% protein and 0.41-0.45% ash, with a viscosity of about 95° to 125ºM. Thin saltines require a weaker flour in the doughs-a protein content of 8.0-8.5%, 0.43% ash, and 55° to 60°M viscosity. Alternatively, a certain percentage (determined by trial) of the strong flour is replaced by cookie flour.

Lard and oleo (the liquid fraction of beef fat) are widely used shortenings. The flavour of crackers containing lard is probably superior to those made with oleo. Plastic shortenings are not essential, so liquefied fats handled by bulk transferring and measuring systems are common. Hydrogenated shortenings have the advantage of improving spring, whereas lard contributes tenderness and frequently detracts from the oven expansion. Emulsifiers are commonly added.

The amount of topping salt is not shown in the quoted formulas. Based on dough weight, about 2.5% is a good average figure. Salt suppliers sell a size specifically intended for this purpose. Different brands of salt are probably distinguished mainly by the percentage of fines, which should be at the minimum it is feasible to obtain. Dough salt should be of a finer granulation, though this is not as important in crackers as in cookies. It has been said that flake salt, used in the dough, causes crackers to have slightly more spring in the oven.

All crackers of the type discussed in this chapter are made from laminated doughs. Formerly, this step was performed on reversible dough brakes. At present, automatic laminators are used throughout the industry. The, number of layers formed is somewhat variable, but there must be at least 6 or 7 to secure any benefit from this operation.

Laminating of cracker doughs is usually done without the benefit of an interleaving ingredient such as is used in puff pastry. In cream crackers, a mixture of flour and shortening is added between the dough sheets.

Shortening is shown as being added to the sponges. One of the advantages of this alternative is that the shortening is certain to be adequately distributed. If any crust forms on the sponge, it is made softer by the shortening. Some authors also say that resistance to rancidity is increased as a result of including the shortening in the sponge. The fermentation rate is probably not affected appreciably by the fat.

Fermentation

There are special considerations involved in cracker sponge fermentations that need to be examined more fully. The yeast added to cracker sponge and the bacteria from ingredient flour or from deposits retained in the trough from previous doughs will grow for 10-15 hr. After this period, growth rates of both the yeast and the bacteria are retarded, but the bacterial rates are inhibited more than the yeast. Acidity increases are largely due to bacteria and are favored by low percentages of yeast. The converse is also true. Sterile troughs retard bacterial and yeast fermentation as well as development of acidity. When the yeast addition is greater than 0.50% or the trough is sterile, acidity is retarded to such an extent that the finished cracker is of high pH and has an undesirable flavour.

The rapidity of gas and acid development is obviously related to the temperature of the sponge and for a given formula is a function of the temperature at which the sponge is set and the temperature of the fermentation room. It is also related to dough composition, as follows:

1. Absorption- the greater the percentage of ingredient water, the faster the fermentation.
2. Salt-this ingredient inhibits fermentation.
3. Amylolytic enzymes-the yeast first uses up the monosaccharides in the dough. After these are exhausted a more or less quiescent adaptation period ensues, and then maltose split off from starch by amylolytic enzymes can be metabolized. Amylases are found in flour but are present in much larger quantities in malt and fungal supplements. Most bacteria can utilize maltose, but some strains cannot.
4. Added sugars-sugar, whether in the form of corn syrup, sucrose, or invert syrup, is consumed rapidly by both yeasts and bacteria. Bakers' yeast does not utilize lactose. Many bacteria can metabolize it, however.

The soda percentages shown in the formulas are only estimates and are not constant. The correct amount of sodium bicarbonate to be added to the trough contents at the doughing-up stage is the quantity necessary to ensure a predetermined pH in the baked cracker. The addition will therefore be related to the amount of acid produced during fermentation. As this indicates, the amount of acid produced cannot always be predicted.

One problem that has still not been solved to everyone's satisfaction is that of ensuring uniform fermentation in all the troughs of sponges or, if it is not possible to achieve this goal, compensating for the different levels of acid produced in different troughs. The difference in rate of fermentation between troughs is evidently due to varying levels of inoculation left by preceding batches. The difference is particularly noticeable when some troughs have been left idle for a time while others have been in constant use. Furthermore, some troughs seem to retain a heavy inoculation better than others. Some technologists have attempted to overcome the uncertainties of predicting proper fermentation time and proper soda addition by numbering both the troughs and their usual location in the fermentation room.Assuming the temperature and time are kept constant and the troughs are in continual use, the development of a known amount of acidity in a given trough can be expected. The necessary soda addition should then be predictable from day to day.

The acidity that must be compensated for by addition of soda can be measured. It is related in a general way to pH, and the pH readings on the dough can be used as a rough guide for adjusting the soda supplementation. A better and more direct indicator is the total titratable acidity. This figure is more difficult to determine accurately, and the analysis is more time-consuming than is the pH test; it is not used much in practice. The pH determination, though it is only indirectly correlated with the amount of acid that has been developed, is probably the most useful index for actual fermentation room practice. Sturdy, accurate pH meters, requiring only daily standardization by quality control personnel, can be place near the mixer used to dough up the sponges. Measurements with temperature compensated electrodes can be taken directly on the sponges immediately prior to remix, and the amount of soda can be determined by reading the appropriate figure from a chart.

Other procedures that have been suggested are pH tests on lumps of dough or sponge sent through the oven ahead of the rest of the trough contents. This technique can be expected to compensate for some of the unknown responses of fermentation-derived chemicals in the oven that might not be accurately predicted on the basis of raw-dough pH.

As the dough ferments, it rises in temperature. The rate and extent of heat production are undoubtedly related to the same processes by which acids are elaborated. However, quantitation of this relationship is uncertain at best. Basing soda addition on degrees of rise in sponge temperature is likely to lead to some undesirable variations in pH of the cracker.

Material is lost through fermentation. Ethanol and other volatile materials are produced from starch and sugars. Carbon dioxide is also lost, both from the trough and in the oven. The losses may amount to between 2 and 3% of the total ingredient weight in a normal operation. In a low-profit item such as soda crackers, it is important to keep these losses at a minimum. However, reduction in loss without reducing flavour or other desirable changes is very difficult. One thing that can be done is to keep the fermentation time at the shortest possible length consistent with a quality cracker. Over-fermenting for convenience of scheduling should be avoided, if possible. Adding ripe sponges or a fermented broth for flavour purposes is a possible approach to minimizing fermentation losses. No doubt we will ultimately see the widespread use of pure bacterial cultures and chemical dough modifiers employed in conjunction with a short (perhaps continuous) dough fermentation to yield flavourful crackers with minor fermentation losses in a perfectly controlled system. Such systems are already widely used in bread manufacture, and only the limited market for equipment is delaying their modification to cracker production.

Sprayed Crackers

This rich cracker, often in a round shape, is usually made from a chemically leavened dough. Actually, many representatives of this class could be considered a cross between a cracker and cookie since they are not only chemically leavened but also sweeter than saltines. In a few plants, a small amount (about 0.25%, flour weight basis, or FWB) of old sponge, made up of flour, water, and a fractional percentage of yeast, is fermented for 36 hr or more and then added to the dough for flavour. Perhaps the original sprayed cracker was prepared by a sponge and dough process very similar to that used for soda crackers. In any case, the leavening system must be adjusted to bring the pH of the finished product below neutrality, with a pH of 6.5 being regarded as desirable by many authorities.

The sponge-and-dough formula shown in Table 33 is to be used in a procedure similar to the soda cracker method, i.e., with a long sponge fermentaion. A short method uses about 2% yeast and more water: the sponge is allowed to stand in the trough for about 30 min, the rest of the ingredients are mixed in and the dough is then fermented about 5½ hr before machining.

Sprayed crackers are coated with 20-25% of a bland shortening. Coconut oil (76F) is preferred, but peanut oil or even hydrogenated vegetable shortenings have been used. The oil is applied either by spraying at 150°-160°F or by means of a device similar to an enrober in which the crackers pass through a flowing curtain of oil. In an old labor-intensive technique, the crackers were dumped while hot into wire baskets and dipped into a tank of melted fat. The oil must be applied while the crackers are hot, but to avoid checking and other problems, the crackers should be annealed or equilibrated for a few minutes before spraying. The crackers may be salted very lightly on the cutting machine.

Table 33. Formulas for Sprayed Crackers

Sponge and dough	Chemically leavened
Sponge ingredients
flour	50	-
yeast	0.25	-
water, variable	24	-
Dough ingredients
flour	50	100
sugar	2.5	5
malt	2.5	1.5
shortening	8	7.5
salt	1.5	1
sodium bicarbonate	0.52	0.9
nonfat dry milk or dried buttermilk	-	2.5
invert syrup monocalcium phosphate	-	2.5
monocalcium phosphate	-	0.75
hot water, variable	4	28

Cheese Crackers

Cheese crackers are usually made from fermented doughs. The flavour elaborated during fermentation is complementary to the cheese flavour and provides an inexpensive way of getting the desired strength and character. These crackers must be on the acid side of neutrality to yield a typical cheese flavour. Formulation is based on soda cracker formulation, except that the fat and moisture added in the fresh cheese must be taken into account. Fermentation conditions are very similar to those in cracker processing, with a sponge stage of about 18 hr and a dough fermentation of perhaps 4-6 hr, depending on the temperature.

Representative formulas are given in Table 34. They are based on sponge and dough processes. Straight doughs with slightly increased yeast percentages and fermentation conditions of 5-6 hr at 90°-94°F have also been suggested.

Table 34. Cheese Cracker Formulas

[td colspn=3 align=center] Cheddar type

	Blue-cheese type
		Average	High	Low
Sponge ingredients (lb)
flour, cracker sponge	80	75	80	60
yeast	0.2	0.3	1.5	0.2
cheese (blue or Cheddar)	17.5	10	20	0
salt	1	-	-	-
shortening	-	7.5	12	4
water	21	23.5	25.0	22.5
Dough ingredients (lb)
flour, cracker dough	20	25	40	20
shrotening	20	-	-	-
sodium bicarbonate	0.75	0.45	0.58	0.31
malt syrup	-	1.0	1.25	0.8
water	-	0.8	4.0	0
cheese	-	4.0	20	0
salt	-	1.0	1.25	0.8

Cheese itself will not add enough colour to make the cracker distinctive in appearance. Paprika-about 0.25%, FWB-may be used in the Cheddar cracker to intensify the colour and to add a flavour complementary to the cheese. A very small amount of cayenne is included in some formulas. Caraway or other spices and poppy seeds add to the blue-cheese cracker a character thought by many to be desirable. One author advocates a small amount of sage in this product.

If natural cheese is being used as the flavouring agent, the rind and any large areas of mold should be removed, and it should be ground as fine as possible immediately before putting it into the mixer. Ground cheese that has been allowed to dry out may never incorporate properly into the dough. The formulas given here show the addition of cheese to the sponge. This allows full hydration of the cheese and aids dispersion during mixing of the dough. Some manufacturers make a premix of a ground cheese and shortening, using the spindle mixer, and keep it in the fermentation room for 24 hr. This is said to develop more flavour and lead to better dispersion of cheese in the dough. This premix can be added at the doughing stage. Force-cured cheeses can be bought to specification. These products are cured under higher than usual temperatures and are considerably more flavourful than ordinary cheese.

Although volume producers of cheese crackers may wish to buy aged Cheddar as the flavouring component, the quality of the natural unmodified material fluctuates so much that it is usually better, and often less expensive in the long run, to buy a compounded cheese powder from a reputable supplier. Storage and incorporation of cheese flavour into doughs create fewer problems when a powder is used. Most manufacturers offering powders have much experience in selecting and blending cheese of standardized quality so that the uniformity of the product can be relied on. When using powders in cracker formulas, ask for the supplier's recommendation as to the percentage required. Modifications of the recommended amount may be necessary, depending on the results of consumer surveys or other reliable guidance.

Cheese powders usually contain artificial colour. There are several very powerful, and fairly typical, artificial Cheddar and blue-cheese flavours on the market. These should be used wherever possible.

Pretzels

Most of the equipment used for producing pretzels in the United States has been made by M/s Reading Pretzel Machinery Co., M/s American Machine and Foundry, and M/s Hinkle Machinery Co.

Pretzel doughs are made very stiff so that they will withstand the punishment of machining without becoming sticky or misshapen. The sponge is fermented for a shorter time than cracker sponges, about 10 hr, and might consist of 20 lb of flour, 10 lb of water, and 1-2 oz of compressed yeast. At the dough stage, 80 lb of strong flour, perhaps 25 lb of water, 1.2 lb of salt, and up to 3 lb of shortening are added. Doughs may receive a short proof stage, but frequently are made up without additional fermentation. The machining steps, including formation of the pretzel, are handled automatically in all but a very few small plants. The characteristic gloss of the pretzel is the result of a lye dip. The dip solution contains about 0.5% sodium hydroxide or 2% sodium carbonate and is maintained at about 210°-212°F. Immersion time is about 10 sec. The solution may also be applied by spraying.

In Reading Pretzel Machinery equipment, the dough is placed in a hopper from which a helix forces it through a slot in the face plate of the extruder. The dough is cut into small strips as it is extruded. The dough drops on a canvas belt that carries it under a second belt. Between the two belts the dough is rolled to the desired thickness. At the end of the rolling process the string of dough has the ends clipped so that the length is uniform. The dough strip then enters the twister. As the shaped pretzel dough leaves the twister it passes under a roller that exerts a slight pressure, which sets the knots.

The raw pretzels are placed across a proofing belt approximately 40 ft long by means of a reciprocating conveyor. From the proofing belt the dough passes through a caustic bath.

The caustic section consists of two tanks. There is a smaller tank through which the pretzels travel and a larger make-up tank, usually at a lower level. The caustic solution is pumped from the make-up tank to the upper or immersion tank. The level in the upper tank is maintained by adjusting the overflow pipe. This system keeps the volume in the upper tank constant. The caustic solution of 1.25 ± 0.25% sodium hydroxide is maintained at 186°-195°F. If the caustic concentration becomes too high, there is not a complete conversion to sodium bicarbonate in the baking and drying cycles and the pretzels will be hot to the taste due to the residual sodium hydroxide. There appears to be no FDA regulation on the amount of sodium hydroxide in the caustic solution.

Table 35. Typical Pretzel Formula

[td colspn=3 align=center]Stick

	Twist (lb)	(lb)	(%)
Flour	160	160	69.18
Shortening	2	4	1.73
Malt (nondiastatic)	2	4	1.73
Yeast	2/5	2/5	0.17
Ammonium bicarbonate	1 oz	4 oz	0.11
Sodium bicarbonate	3 oz	-	-
Water	8 gal.	7.5 gal.	27.08
Yeast food	As required		100.00

Immediately after the pretzels leave the caustic solution, they are salted. The salter consists of a supply hopper from which the salt is dispensed by means of a grooved roller. Salt slides down a chute until approximately 2 in. above the pretzels and then drops the rest of the way. The general aim is 2% salt on the finished product, but it is necessary that the initial application be at the rate of 8-10% due to losses in processing.

The pretzels then enter the oven, which in the case of the Reading Pretzel Machine is usually a 50-ft oven. The bake section is the top portion of the oven and has burners over and under the band that carries the pretzels. The temperature of the bake section is quite variable; it might be 475°F as the pretzels enter and 425°F at the exit of the bake section. The time in the bake section is controlled by a variable speed drive and is between 4 and 5 min. The moisture at the end of the bake period should be about 15%.

The pretzels then go down a slide to the drying section, which is underneath and separated from the bake section by heavy insulation. The pretzels that cling to the baking belt are removed by means of a doctor blade. The belt in the drying section travels in a direction opposite to that of the belt in the bake section. The speed of the drying belt is also variable, but it is much slower than the belt in the bake section. The pretzels form a bed several inches deep and remain in the drying section from 25 min up to 90 min. The temperature is held in the range of 225°-250°F. There is much debate over the drying time and its total effect. Other than reducing the moisture to the desired 2.0-2.5%, many claim that the long drying time is needed to temper the pretzel so that it will not break too easily during packaging.

From the drying oven, the pretzels are conveyed to the packaging machine. The sooner the pretzels can be packaged, the less breakage there is likely to be. Most companies strive to keep the breakage at less than 15% at the time of packaging. Covering the drying belts to protect the pretzels from cold drafts and to facilitate equilibration of moisture vapour is a useful procedure for reducing checking. The relatively large amount of checking in twisted pretzels is due to the moisture gradients set up by the slower bake-out of the thicker knotted parts.

Stick pretzels are extruded using a group of 5 extruding heads containing 10-12 holes per extruding head. The dough is forced through the extruding head by means of a helix and falls onto the proofing belt. As the dough nears the end of the proofing belt, it is cut into the desired length by a group of reciprocating knife blades. These blades are circular and travel across the belt, cutting the dough. When the knives reach the edge of the belt they rise and return to their starting point. The stick pretzels pass through a caustic and salting operation similar to that for twist pretzels. The temperature is usually kept at a constant 420ºF, and the time in the bake oven is between 4 and 5 min. The drying section is run at 225°-250°F, with the sticks exposed for approximately 55 min.

Logs and nugget-type pretzels are made much as the sticks are, except that they are cut off at the extruder head.

It should be noted that M/s Reading Pretzel Machines also use a 25-ft oven for stick pretzels. All of their ovens are composed of modules approximately 5 ft long, so that ovens can be shortened or lengthened to the customer's specifications and available space. As supplied, the ovens require manual lighting and adjusting of each individual burner.

Water is adjusted to suit varying flour and climatic conditions. The stick pretzel can be made using almost any flour. However, the flour used in twisted pretzels is very critical.

On the American Machine and Foundry equipment, the twisters work differently than the Reading Pretzel twisters. American Machine and Foundry have ovens similar to the Reading Pretzel ovens, but they also make or distribute a single-pass oven that is approximately 90 ft long. In this oven the pretzels enter a bake section that is about 30 ft long and run at 450°F. The pretzels then enter a drying section that covers the remaining 60 ft and has a temperature range of 225°-250°F.

It must be stated that variations in any and all phases of pretzel production can be found in any operation that is visited. This is true not only between companies, but also between plants within any single company. At the present time the production of pretzels is more of an art than a science, and therefore the pretzel manufacturer is very reluctant to discuss his operations with outside technologists.

Methods for making filled pretzel sticks or nuggets have been patented. These usually require drilling a hole in a completely baked-pretzel stick and then extruding a paste-like filling into the hole. Fillings can be based on mixtures of peanut butter or cheese with oil and sugar or some nonsweet powder such as lactose or dextrins.

SWEET BAKED SNACKS

Plain Cookies

Plain cookies, as the term is used here, means cookies that are made in one operation, i.e., they do not include filled, coated, sandwiched, and other multiple-component cookies. In this section, the principles of for mulation and examples of recipes are given for base cakes and plain cookies in the categories of rotary-molded, wire-cut, deposited, rotary-cut, and stamped goods. There is, of course, some overlapping, as in most classification schemes. It is also true that there are special types of cookies not accurately defined by these broad groups.

It should be understood that the formulas given as examples are intended to serve as points of departure in developing recipes suitable for a given plant, and not as rigid guidelines that can be followed explicitly in every case. The interaction of personnel, equipment, and environment, not to mention the unpredictable fluctuations in ingredient characteristics (especially of the flour), make such universal formulas impractical. Therefore, variations in absorption, sugar, leaveners, or shortening may be necessary in order to get a workable dough based on the sample formulas.

Function of the Ingredients. The continuous structure of the cookie arises from the flour. The basic framework is tenderized by sugar, invert sugar, egg yolk, ammonia, soda (or baking powder), and shortening. It is firmed or toughened by water, cocoa, egg white, whole egg, milk solids, and the leavening acids. Flavours and spices are usually not present in sufficient quantity to affect texture. Salt is usually considered to be a toughener.

Sugars and especially syrups in large amounts tend to make the dough sticky and hinder release from dies and wires. Shortening is one of the principal agents for increasing tenderness, at least so far as the rich, sweet biscuits are concerned. Too much shortening may lead to a greasy, smeary cookie that is susceptible to rancidity because the free fat soaks into the package, although these effects can be largely overcome by using plastic trays and cello overwrap. Too much sugar leads to hardness and excessive sweetness in the finished cookie.

A wide variety of flours are being used, from a soft cookie flour to a rather strong sponge flour. The stronger the flour, the more shortening and sugar must be used to obtain an acceptable texture. High-protein contents lead to hardness of texture and coarseness of internal grain and surface appearance. Chlorine-bleached flours are not recommended for soft-type cookies where relatively large amounts of tenderizing and moisture-retaining ingredients such as sugar, shortening, and egg yolk are used. If the flour is decreased too much, as when large amounts of enriching ingredients are added, the cookie will lack body and may become too fragile.

Whole frozen eggs contribute a better structure and a more delicate texture than do dried eggs, especially in semi-batter wire-type cookies. Frozen eggs seem to give greater volume and a more open grain. Whole eggs, either fresh or frozen, cream readily and seem to provide better structure in drop cookies. Use of egg yolk as a part or complete replacement for whole eggs (using a smaller percentage than whole) will produce a tender cookie with excellent eating quality, but the grain or internal structure of the cookie may not be as good as with the whole egg.

The ideal relationship of shortening and sugar in three types of doughs as follows: cutting machine, 15% shortening and sugar variable; rotary, 30% of each of these ingredients; and wire-cut, 50% sugar and 50% shortening, all on a flour weight basis. Problems in machining are encountered when the shortening content is raised much above that indicated for rotary and cutting machine doughs, but this is not necessarily so for wire-cut doughs. Modern techniques have altered some beliefs; for example, it is possible to run certain shortening-free doughs on cutting machines.

Lecithin seems to increase the shortening effect of fats. It also promotes a tendency for the fat to cover or spread among slightly moist particles of sugar, flour, etc., which would otherwise repel the fat.

Granulated, fine granulated, and powdered sugar can be used alone or in combination to adjust spread and machining properties. For better uniformity of spread a specific granulation should be established. No two suppliers of sugar have the same screen analysis, even though the nomenclature is the same. Finer sugars require less mixing than do the coarser varieties, and they may reduce sticking to the band. A fine granulated sugar creams better than powdered. Dextrose can often be substituted for up to 20% of the sucrose. Invert syrup must be used with care. The wire-cuts, especially wafers, soft, light, and spongy, with an open texture. The crust colour is often brighter and develops earlier in the baking.

Milk blends or ameliorates harsh flavours without contributing much flavour of its own. About 5% of the flour weight as skim milk powder is a good average figure for securing the full benefits of the ingredient. Crust colour and gloss are generally improved. The protein components bind water and make the dough stiffer and somewhat stickier. The toughening effect on the finished product is minor, in most cases.

Whey has similar results, except that the stiffening, water-binding, and toughening effects are negligible.

Proportions. The range of ingredient additions in three kinds of cookie doughs are shown in Table 36.

Table 36. Contents of Major Ingredients in Three Kinds of Cookie Doughsa

	Water(%)	Shortening(%)	Sugars(%)	Syrups(%)
Rotary molded	5-15	10-40	20-45	0-20
Cutting-machine	10-25	5-20	15-50	0-20
Wire-cut	10-40	10-50	30-85	0-20
Range	0-61	9-98	9-98	0-85
Average	22.2	33.7	43.7	16.9

a Based on flour as 100%.

Deposit Cookies. This variety is the machine-made counterpart of the hand-bagged cookie, and many of the latter formulas can be successfully adapted to automatic production. Deposit cookies will have about 35-40% sugar, 65-75% shortening, and 15-25% liquid whole eggs. The flour should be from soft wheat, unbleached, with 8-8.5% protein and 0.35-0.40% ash. It should have a viscosity of 40°M or more and a spread factor of 79-80.

The flour must be able to carry the sugar and shortening without too much spread so that the top design is preserved through baking. At the same time, the flour or other ingredients must contribute enough adhesive properties to the dough so that it will adhere to the band and pull away from the main tube of the dough in the deposit stage.

Table 37 gives typical basic formulas for three types of deposit cookies. Modifications by adding small amounts of flavours and colours can generally be made without other adjustments. For example, orange oil, lemon oil, or butter flavours can be used to advantage in Spritz and star cookies. The amount of sugar given in the formula should be divided between powdered and granulated, with the proportions being chosen to give the proper dough consistency and spread. A recipe for basic almond macaroon is 5 lb almond paste, 5 lb powdered sugar, 1.75 lb egg whites, and 0.75 lb white cornmeal. Macaroons can be made by the cold process, hot-syrup process, or cooked process. They should not be made by the cold process, however, unless they are to be consumed within three days. The possibility of soapiness developing due to lipase activity is doubtless remote, but it has happened often enough to be a danger.

Table 37. Formulas for Deposit Cookies

	Peanut butter(lb)	Spritz(lb)	Star(lb)
Moderately strong flour	50	50	100
Bleached cake flour	50	50	-
Sugar	80	50	45
Shortening	32	40	46
Whole eggs, frozen	12	8	3
Salt	1.5	1.25	1.5
Sodium bicarbonate	0.75	0.4	0.15
Ammonia	0.25	0.125	-
Invert syrup	5	1.25	-
Butter or margarine	-	5	-
Dried sweet whey	-	1	4
Baking powder	-	-	0.5
Yanilla extract	-	0.5	0.25
Water or ice	35	6	16
Peanut butter	85	-	-

Wire-cut Cookies. The dough composition can be varied over a wider range for wire-cut cookies than for any other type. In these doughs, it is necessary to have the material sufficiently cohesive to hold together as it is extruded through an orifice and yet be nonsticky and short enough so that it separates cleanly as it is cut by the wire. Dough formulas may contain up to several 100% sugar based on the flour weight basis, and shortening up to 100% or more, based on the flour content. Doughs may be almost as soil as cake batters or too stiff to be easily molded by hand. The very soft doughs overlap deposit doughs in consistency, whereas the other extreme is close to rotary-molded-type doughs. Advantages over rotary-molded cakes are a more open texture, and over deposit goods, a more uniformly shaped cookie. Disadvantages in comparison with the rotary-molded piece are the lack of design and somewhat less uniformity.

Classified wire-cut cookies is shown in Table 38. soft cookies further subdivided into (1) drop type, such as those to be used in sandwich cookies filled with a marshmallow or imitation cream and usually having an amount of sugar equal to the flour; (2) sugar cookies, molasses cookies, and coconut, raisin, date, and honey varieties; (3) shortbreads, in which the shortening is usually ½ to ¾ as much as the flour; and (4) macaroons, with little or no flour and large proportions of sugar. Such varieties as ladyfingers, based on pound cake recipes, would not be included in the above classifications.

Table 38. Formulation of Wire-cut Cookies

Sugar(%)	Flour typea	Shortening(%)	Liquid whole eggs(%)	Final moisture(%)
Low-cost promotional cookies	40-50	A	20-25	Little, if any	4-5
Standard marketshelf cookies	50	A	50	10	4-5
Soft cookies	Up to 75	A and B	60	Up to 20	12-15
Specialty highquality cookies	35-40	A and C	65-75	15-25	-

Flour types: A-Soft wheat unbleached with 8-8.5% protein, 0.35-0.40% ash; 40+ viscosity; spread factor 79-80. B-Cake flour. C-Bread flour.

Soft cookies as (1) filled, (2) old-fashioned sugar cookies, (3) drops, and (4) bars. For soft cookies, he recommends a medium-strong soft red winter wheat, lightly bleached with chlorine, with an ash content of about 0.39% and a protein content of about 9.5%, or a strong soft red winter wheat, unbleached and having an ash of about 0.41% and a protein of about 9.5%. The shortening should be a good-quality creamable fat. The sugar should be predominantly granulated, with perhaps 18-24% invert (FWB). Eggs should be present at the 14% level or more (FWB). Emulsifiers may be necessary.

The vanilla wafer formula is perhaps the simplest version of the wire-cut cookie. A representative formula is:

	lb	oz
Flour	100
Granulated sugar	72
Invert syrup	5
Shortening	25
Nonfat milk solids	1	8
Salt	1	8
Ammonium bicarbonate		4
Egg yolk, dried	1
Soda		10
Water, variable, about	55

This formula will yield a finished cookie having a pH of about 7.5 to 8.0. A richer cookie could be made by using larger quantities of egg, especially frozen whole eggs, and by increasing the shortening or using part butter. If the above formula is changed by reducing the granulated sugar by 12 lb, doubling the nonfat milk solids, replacing the egg yolk with 4 lb of whole eggs, and adding enough monocalcium phosphate to bring the pH of the finished cookie within the 6.5 to 7.0 range, a typical sugar cookie will result. Some authorities recommend a pH of 7.0-7.6 for sugar cookies to yield better-baked colour and texture. Of course, the water must also be adjusted, and in this case might have to be reduced to as-low as 22 lb.

To the sugar cookie can be added molasses, oatmeal, raisins, various kinds of nut pieces, coconut, cocoa, etc. To the shortbread can be added slivered almonds, cocoa, etc. Oatmeal cookies require approximately equal parts of flour and oats; against the total of flour and oats should be added at least 65% sugar and 55% shortening. A peanut butter cookie can be formulated on the sugar cookie base using 100-105% sugar (part brown), 60% shortening, 75% peanut butter, and 12% eggs. The quality would be improved by also adding 3-5% nonfat dry milk.

It sometimes proves difficult to get an attractively cracked top surface on sugar cookies and similar varieties. The type of flour, the granulation of sugar, and the balance of the leavening agents affect this feature. In some cases, the desired appearance can be obtained by holding part of the granulated sugar out of the cream-up stage and adding it to the dough just before it is taken from the mixer. Others find that use of steam in the oven or adjustment of the temperature and damper pattern will secure the preferred cracking.

CUTTING MACHINE GOODS

The principal distinguishing feature of this method of machining doughs is that the pieces are cut from a continuous web of dough-by a cylindrical die or a reciprocating cutter. A rather large variety of dough types can be handled. It is necessary that the dough be sufficiently cohesive to form the continuous sheet from which the blanks will be cut and to hold the scrap (if any) together as it is lifted from between the blanks. Reciprocating cutting machines, or stampers, are often discussed as though there were many points of similarity between them and rotary cutters. In fact, there are so many differences between the two types of equipment that it is not particularly informative to consider them together. It is true, however, that many formulas can be run on either type with similar results. Stamping machines are mostly used for soda crackers, graham crackers, and the like. They seem to require a somewhat more elastic and cohesive dough than is needed for the rotary cutters. The latter are generally better suited to making small pieces and elaborate designs.

Some examples of typical formulas suitable for running on the rotary cutter are given in Table 40. Many modifications will suggest themselves to the reader. The basic sugar cookie formula should be flavoured with vanilla, orange, lemon, or mace. To the sugar cookie formula, 50 lb of currants may be added to make currant cake. Coconut might be added, or nut pieces.

The general procedure for mixing these doughs is to cream the salt, sugar, and fatty materials, then mix in the syrups, eggs, and milk. Water with ammonium bicarbonate is added next, and finally, the flour, soda, and acid creams are mixed to the proper stage.

Table 40. Cutting-Machine Doughs

Sugar cookie(lb)	Peanut snap(lb)	Milk cracker(lb)	Ginger snap(lb)	Chocolate(lb)
Soft flour	100	100	100	100	100
Sugar	30	32	5	12	45
Invert sugar syrup	6	-	-	38a	5
Corn syrup	12	-	-	-	-
Shortening	13	10	11	15	18
Salt	0.75	1	0.5	1	1
Malt	1.5	6	1	5	-
Ammonia	0.75	0.25	0.3	-	0.4
Sodium bicarbonate	0.5	0.75	0.75	2	0.625
Acid cream	0.625	-	0.75	-	-
Nonfat milk solids	1	2	1	-	1
Water	12	19	30	8	25
Peanut butter	-	30	-	-	-
Whole egg, frozen	5	8	-	-	-
Flavour	-	1b	-	2c	15d

1. Molasses.
2. Vanilla extract.
3. Usually about 3 parts ginger to 1 part cinnamon.
4. 5 lb cocoa and 10 lb chocolate liquor.

ROTARY-MOLDED COOKIES

In formulating a dough for rotary-molded cookies, the consistency must be such that it will feed uniformly and readily fill all of the crevices of the die cavity under the pressures existing in the feeding hopper. The dough blank must be capable of being extracted from the cavity without undergoing distortion or forming tails of considerable size, but it must adhere to the die roll sufficiently to prevent the dough from falling out before it reaches the extraction roller. The blank must have sufficient cohesion to hold together and not break up at any of the transfer points before or after baking. The dough must flow very sightly or smooth out during forming and baking so that woodiness and undesirable irregularities in the surface are not apparent in the finished cookie. Usually, the spread and rise should be minimized so as not to blur or distort the design.

Doughs formulated according to these requirements are usually fairly high in sugar and shortening and low in moisture. The development of gluten is definitely to be avoided. Table 41 gives comparative formulas for plain rotary cookies. To these may be added artificial butter flavours, spices (e.g., mace or nutmeg), pure vanilla, or traces of orange or lemon oil to modify acceptability. The desirable volatiles of pure vanilla are largely lost in a typical rotary cookie bake. Yellow colour will be required in butter and vanilla varieties, and carbon black will be required in the chocolate. About 2 oz of dissolved gelatin added per 100 lb of flour improves the gloss of chocolate rotary doughs. Gelatins of low Bloom strength are cheaper and just as effective as the stronger types. They are also easier to dissolve and disperse. Table 42. Summarizes the formulas for a few specialty items.

Most manufacturers use flour of about 8.1-8.2% protein for rotary-base cakes, although a range of 7.1-9.2% has been reported. Ash should be about 0.415%, with a known range of 0.33-0.47% being used satisfactorily. Oleo shortening added in the liquid condition is suitable for most of these doughs, but vegetable shortening can also be used. Powdered sugar and sugar syrups are the preferred sweetening ingredients. Nonfat milk solids are often added, but it is thought that condensed milk is preferable, since the liquid ingredient removes any possibility of lumps appearing in the finished cookie. Lecithin at about the 0.4% level will improve machinability.

One-stage mixing is often perfectly satisfactory, but a creaming operation with most of the minor ingredients added before the flour goes in gives added assurance that lumps of undistributed ingredients will not appear in the cookie. Dough temperatures from 72º to 90ºF are being used for rotary sandwich bases. Generally, rotary and cutting-machine doughs need higher temperatures than do vanilla wafers and brown-edge wafers, which should be machined below room temperatures.

The following faults can sometimes be corrected by increasing absorption: (1) dough too sticky-will not come out of die cavities; (2) dough too stiff-will not fill die cavities; and (3) surface irregular.

Table 42. Formulas for Specialty Rotary Cookies

<td colspan='4' align='center'>Variety1.5

	Molasses(lb)	Almondshort(lb)	Coconut(lb)	Sugar(lb)
Flour	100	100	100	100
Shortening	35	20	15	35
Sugar	30	28	13	48
Invert syrup	4	2	3	7.5
Frozen whole eggs	-	4	-	2
Sweetened condensed skim milk	10	3	6	6
Brown sugar	-	-	20	-
Molasses	10	-	-	-
Acid cream	-	0.2	-	-
Sodium bicarbonate	1	0.5	0.62	0.35
Ammonium bicarbonate	-	0.25	-	0.5
Salt	1.5	1	0.75
Butter	-	15	20	-
Water	5	5	6	7
Almond slices	-	6	-	-
Extra-fine coconut	-	-	5	-

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