Soaps and Detergents
Soaps
Synthetic Detergents
Physical Properties of Soap
Viscosity
Specific heat
Latent heat
Density of soap
66% Rule
Salt distribution between curd and lye
Glycerol distribution between curd and lye
Rate of drying of soap
Uses
Raw Materials
Classification of Fats/Oils
Fatty Oils are Further Classified as
Colour
Availability of oils for Soapmaking
Saponification Value
Iodine Value
Free fatty acids
Titre
Fatty acids containing-OH and -CO
groups, hydroxy and keto-stearic acids
Characteristics of individual Oils
Rice bran oil
Sal
Castor oil
Coconut oil
Linseed oil
Mowrah
Kusum oil
Neem oil
Acid oils
Karanja Oil
Palm Oil
Plam kernel oil
Tallow
Rosin
Other indigenous oils
Abbreviations of Fatty Acids
Fatty Acid Isomers
Pre-Treatment and Upgradation of oils and fats
Introduction
Techniques for Upgrading Oils
De-gumming
Earth bleaching
Air bleaching
Chemical bleaching
Hydrogen peroxide
Benzoyl peroxide
Chlorine
Sodium chlorite or chlorate
Hydrogenation
De-odorisation
Formulation of oil Blends for Soaps
Introduction
Choice of oils and fats
Iodine value, titre and fatty acid composition
Facilities for upgrading oils
Toilet Soaps
FA Composition of Toilet Soap
Typical Oils Blends for Toilet Soap (Compositions %)
Non Fatty Raw Materials for Soap
The Alkalis
Soap Builders
Filler
Stabilizers, Antioxidants
Other Additives (Foam Producers)
Foaming Agents Used in Soap
Solvents
Medicaments/Deodorants/Bacteriostatic agents
Clarifiers
Colouring Matters
Preparation of Colours
Water Soluble
Oil Soluble
Alcohol Soluble
Milled Soaps
For a batch of 100 kg. soap colour required is
Full-boiled/Semi-boiled/cold-made Soaps
The oil soluble colours recommended are
Soap Bases and Liquid Soaps
Popular shades and the colours used to obtain them are
Washing/Laundry Soaps
Medicated Soaps
Perfumes
(Comprehensive Details)
Essential Oils
Isolates
Synthetic Chemicals
Fixatives (Listed in Table 4)
Important Essentials, Isolates, Synthetic Odourous
Chemicals and Fixatives
Isolates
Synthetic Odourous Chemicals
Fixatives
Raw Materials : Herbal Products
Acacia arabica
A. indica Benth
Parts Used : Bark, gum, leaves, seeds, pods.
Acalypha Indica
(N.O. - Euphorbiaceae)
ANDROPOGON MURICATUS. Retz. or A. Squarrosus
Angelica (Angelica archangelica)
Anise (Pimpinella anisum)
Associated Oil
AZADIRACHTA INDICA
Basil (Ocimum basilicum)
BALSAMODENDRON MUKUL, HOOK. or B. agollocha
Parts Used - Gum
BALSAMODENDRON MYRRHA
(N.O. Burseraceae)
Parts Used : Gum from the bark of the tree
Bay (Laurus nobilis)
Associated Oils
Benzoin (Styrax benzoin)
Associated Oils
Bergamot (Citrus bergamia)
Birch (Betula lenta)
Associated Oils
Calendula (Calendula Officinalis)
Associated Oil
Caraway (Carum carvi)
Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum)
CITRUS MEDICA, Linm
(N.O.-Rutaceae)
Carrot Seed (Daucus carota)
Caulophyllum Inophyllum
Cedarwood (Cedrus species)
Cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum)
Associated Oils
Clary Sage (Salvia sclarea)
Associated Oils
Celery (Apium graveolens)
Chamomile, German
(Matricaria recutita, formerly M. chamomilla)
Associated Oils
Coriander (Coriandrum sativum)
Curculigo orchioides Gaertn
(N.O.-Amaryllidaceae)
Ayurvedic Properties
CURCUMA LONGA, Linn
(N.O.-Scitaminaceae)
Associated Oil
Cypress (Cupressus sempervirens)
Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus)
Associated Oils
Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare)
Associated Oil
Fir (Abies alba and other species)
Associated Oils
Associated Oils
FICUS RELIGIOSA LINN
(N.O. Moraceae)
Parts Used : Bark, Fruit, Root
Ayurvedic Properties
Galbanum (Ferula galbaniflua)
Associated Oils
Geranium (Pelargonium graveolens)
Associated Oil
Ginger (Zingiber officinale)
Associated Oil
Helichrysum (Helichrysum angustifolium)
Hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis)
Associated Oil
Inula, Sweet (Inula graveolens, or I. odorata)
Associated Oil
HEMIDESMUS INDICUS, R. BR.,
Asclepias pseudosarsa, var. latifolia
(N.O. Asclepiadaceae)
Jasmine
(Jasminum officinale and J. grandiflorum)
Associated Oil
Juniper (Juniperus communis)
Associated Oils
Labdanum (Cistus labdaniferus)
Associated Oils
Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia, previously L.
vera and L. Officinale)
Associated Oils
Lemon (Citrus limon)
Associated Oil
Associated Oils
Lemongrass Cochin (C. flexuosus)
Grown in India primarily for isolation of citral
Lovage (Levisticum officinale)
Marjoram
(Origanum marjorana or Marjorana hortensis)
Associated Oils
Melissa (Melissa Officinalis)
Associated Oil
Mimosa (Acacia decurrens var. dealbata)
Associated Oil
Myrrh (Commiphora myrrha)
Associated Oils
Myrtle (Myrtus communis)
Oakmoss (Evernia prunastri)
Associated Oil
Orange (Citrus sinensis)
Associated Oils
Orange Blossom (Neroli)
(Citrus aurantium var. amara)
Associated Oils
Patchouli (Pogostemon cablin)
Pepper, Black (Piper nigrum)
Associated Oils
Cubeb (Piper cubeba)-A litsea substitute
Peppermint (Mentha piperita)
Associated Oils
PSORALEA CORYLIFOLIA LINN.
(N.O. Papilionaceae, Fabaceae)
Parts Used : Roots, leaves, fruits, seeds
Ayurvedic Properties
Ravensare (Ravensara aromatica)
Rose (Rosa damascena, R. gallica, and others)
Associated Oils
Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis)
Associated Oils
Rosewood (Aniba rosaeodora)
Sage (Salvia officinalis)
Sandalwood (Santalum album)
Associated Oil
Spikenard (Nardostachys jatamansi)
Associated Oils
SMILAX CHINA
(N.O. - Liiiaceae)
TERMINALIA CHEBULA RETZ.
(N.O. Combretaceae)
Parts Used : Fruit
Ayurvedic Properties
TERMINALIA BELERICA ROXB
(N.O. Combretaceae)
Parts Used : Fruit (unripe and ripe)
Ayurvedic Properties
Healing Power and Curative Properties
Cough
Stomach Disorders
Sore Throat
Chronic Constipation
Intestinal Worms
Eye Disorders
Other Diseases
Tea Tree (Melaleuca alternifolia)
Associated Oils
Thyme (Thymus vulgaris)
Associated Oils
Thymus vulgaris has many chemotypes
Tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa)
Vanilla (Vanilla planifolia)
Vetiver (Vetiveria zizanoides)
Violet (Viola odorata)
Associated Oil
Yarrow (Achillea millefolium)
Ylang-Ylang (Canaga odorata)
Associated Oils
Preparation and Properties of Surface
Active Agents from Castor Oil
Manufacture of Turkey Red Oil
Preparation of Esters by Alcoholysis
Sulphation of Esters
Hexane Extraction of the Sulphated Product
Typical Experimental Details
Major raw materials
Method
Products
Cottonseed Oil for Soapstock
Genesis of Investigation
Novel Features and Method of Utilisation of the Process
Refining of three oils of different types
Refining of a highly colour-fixed sample of
solvent extracted cottonseed oil
Likely scope of its application
The stage to which the laboratory
investigations have been conducted
The scale and duration of pilot-plant working
Availability of Raw Materials
Estimates of the cost of utilisation of the method
Capital outlay required
Flow Sheet
Points requiring specific emphasis
Development and Application of
New Herbal Functional Surfactants
Introduction
New Trend of Surfactants
Narrow distribution ethoxylate ('Peaked' ethoxylates)
and its derivatives
Biodegradable surfactants
Surfactants arising from natural materials
Reactive Surfactants
Effect of TREM LF-40 concentration (2.03 mM initiator)
on the particle size of poly (vinyl acetate) latex particles
Herbal based Soaps & Shampoos
Formulations for Herbal Washing Soaps
Hard Fats are
Soft Fats are
Some Suggested Formulations for Washing Soaps
Good Quality
Cheaper Quality
A Typical Batch for Herbal Based Toilet Soap
Oriental type
Perfume mixture as formulated below
Perfumes as formulated below
Perfume Mixtur
Formulation of fancy Soap Type
Perfume Mixture
Himalayan Boquet Type
Perfume Mixture
Rose Soap Type
Perfume Mixture
Transparent Soap - No. 1.
(glycerine soap of market)
A suggested formulation
Transparent Soap-No.2
(by special milling method)
Mottled Soap
Carboli Acid Soap
Suggested Formulation
Procedure
Medicated Soaps
Castile Soap
CASTILE SOAP BY BOILING PROCESS
Process Description
Some Suggested Formulations for Castile Soap
Translucent Coconut Oil Soap
Some Suggested Formulations for Disinfectant
Liquid Antiseptic Soap
Deodorant Soaps
Combination in Soap No. 1.
Combination in Soap No. 2
VARIOUS INDUSTRIAL SOAPS
Textile Soaps
Some of the uses are
Textile Bleaching-Washing Soap Powder
Laundry Soap Formulations
More Formulations
Laundry Washing Aids
More Laundry Wash Mixtures
(Soap and Sodium Metasilicate Solution)
A Fabric Cleaning Compound
Cotton Scouring Soap
Dry Cleaner's Soap
A sugested Formulation of Dry Cleaner's Soap
WATER SOFTNER
(Chemicals which may be used for prevention of soap curds)
JELLY SOAP/ SOFT SOAP
AUTOMOBILE SOAP
WIRE DRAWING SOAP
SCOURING SOAP
PREPARATION OF WASHING SOAP POWDER
Simplified Method
SHAVING SOAPS
Procedure
A Typical Charge
Shaving Cream
A Typical Charge
Other Formulation
Brushless/Latherless Shaving Cream
LIQUID SHAVING CREAM
Basic Combination
Thicker Cream
Aerosol Package
Liquid Soaps/Shampoos
Process of Manufacture
EQUIPMENTS
LIQUID TOILET SOAP CONCENTRATES
Some suggested Formulations
For Office use
For Workshop use
Soap Bubble Liquid
LIQUID WASHING SOAP CONCENTRATE
SHAMPOOS
Classification
Physical States
Characteristics
Various Additives of Shampoos Imparting Special Properties
Solubilizer
Opacifiers
Thickeners for Body or Viscosity
Foam Stabilizers
Conditioning Agents
Agents for Resistance of Hard-Water
Germicidal Agents
Preservatives
SOAP SHAMPOOS
Older Methods
Modern Methods
Some Typical Formulations
SHAMPOOS BASED ON SYNTHETIC HERBAL SURFACTANTS
GENERAL FORMULATIONS
Liquid Cream Shampoos and Paste Cream
A General Formulation
Foamless oil Shampoos
A Formulation
Baby Shampoos
Medicated Dandruff Sampoos
Other miscellaneous shampoos
Aerosol Shampoos (Pressure Dispersed)
HERBAL TOILET SOAPS
To Prevent Pimples
To Fight Dandruff
To Kill Germs
To Present Prickly Heat
HERBAL SHAMPOOS
Lime Shampoo
Lavender Shampoo
Methi-Shikakai Shampoo
Sandalwood Shampoo
Neem Shampoo
Hair Rinses
Apple Hair Rinse
Barley Hair Rinse
Chamomile Hair Rinse
Rosemary-Chamomile Hair Rinse
Rosemary Hair Rinse
Hair Setting Preparations for all Hair Types
Bay-Rum Hair Setting Preparation
Clove Hair Setting Preparation
Gum Tragacanth Hair Setting Preparation
Lime Hair Setting Preparation
HAIR CONDITIONERS FOR ALL HAIR TYPES
Avocado Hair Conditioner
Sunflower Hair Conditioner
Wheat Hair Conditioner
Shampooing
ANTI-DANDRUFF PREPARATIONS FOR ALL HAIR TYPES
Anti Dandruff Lemon Preparation
Anti-Dandruff Egg Preparation
Anti-Dandruff Vinegar Preparation
Anti-Dandruff Sesame Preparation
Anti-Dandruff Sesame Preparation
Anti-Dandruff Rosemary Preparation
Technology of Manufacturing
Herbal Synthetic Detergents
Performance Criteria
Washing habits
Quality of water
Soiling
White vs. coloured clothes
Manufacturing facilities
Safety and pleasant 'in-use' qualities
Colour, odour and flow characteristics
Shelf life
Pricing
Formulation Requirements
Alkalinity
Good building and active matter
Approach to Product Formulation
Non Soapy Detergent Powder Formulations
Production Procedure
FORMULATIONS OF SYNTHETIC DETERGENT POWDERS
A TYPICAL BATCH OF FINISHED PRODUCT
(A good quality household detergent granules)
For 1000 kg. yield
Surfactants
Builders
Additives
A TYPICAL BATCH USING ACID SLURRY OF
UNSEPARATED SPENT ACID
For 1000 kg. of finished detergent
Surfactant
Builders
Additives
Detergent Powder Prepared Without
Using Spray Dryer (High Bulk Density)
A TYPICAL FORMULATION OF HOUSEHOLD
DETERGENT POWDER
For 1000 kg. finished product
Procedure
Foam Regulation
Typical Suds Regulated Surfactant Compounds
General Formulations for Industrial Detergent Powder
Woollen Piece Goods Scouring Preparation
Formulation with anionic and soap as active surfactants
Light Duty
Machine Dish Washing Powder
Scouring Powders Including Kitchen Cleaners
Abrasives
Surfactants
Other Chemicals
Soap Powder

Manufacturing Process
Floor Washing Compound
Heavy-duty Household Washing Powder
White Household Heavy-duty washing Powder
Spray-dried Heavy-duty Household Hand-washing Powder
Household Spray-dried Powder
General-purpose Spray-dried Powder
General Purpose Powder
High-foam Food/Dairy Detergent Cleaner
Heavy-duty Detergent Powder
Light-duty Detergent Powder
General Formula for Detergent Powders
Spray-dried Enzyme Detergent
Medium-foam Detergent Powder
Glass Rinsing Sanitizer
Industrial Sanitary Cleaner
General Cleaning Compound
Dishwashing Compound
Heavy-duty Detergent
Household Laundry Bleach
Low Sudsing Detergent Powder
Hand Laundering Powder
Plastic-ware Destaining Compounds
Magic Dip Bleach
Purex Bleach
All-purpose Metal Cleaning Compound
Standards
Scheme for the Manufacture of Detergent
powder on small scale
Land and Building
Projecting Cost
Plant and Machinery
Labour & Staff
Monthly Requirements of Raw Materials,
Utilities and Factory Overheads
Working Capital (3 months basis)
Total Capital Investment
Own Capital Requirements
Factory cost of Production (Monthly Basis)
Profitability
Detergent Bars
Introduction
Requirements of a Detergent Bar
NSD Bar Vs. Soap
Components of Detergent Bars
Active detergent
Sodium tripolyphosphate
Talc
Starch
China clay
Calcite
Soda ash
Sodium sulphate
Sodium silicate
Coconut mono ethanolamide
Soapstock
Dicalcium phosphate
Rosin
Titanium dioxide
Colour
Fluorescer
Perfume
Water
Processing of NSD Bars
Handling of Raw Materials
Processing
Process Control
Some Typical Formulations of Detergent Bar
Formulations for detergent bar manufacture
Plant & Machinery for Small Scale Detergent
Cake Manufacture
Kneader
Milling Machine
Plodder
Bar Cutter or Billet Cutter
Embossing or Stamping Machine
Pulverizer
Formulations of Detergent Cakes
Soap-Surfactant Combination
Detergent Bar
Low-soap Syndet Bar
Soap-Synthetic All-purpose Bar
All Syndet Bar
Alkyl-Sulfate Syndet Bar
Proctor & Gamble's Soap Syndet Formulation
Proctor and Gabmle's Syndet Laundry Bar
SCHEME FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF
DETERGENT CAKES ON SMALL SCALE
Capacity : 1 tonne per day per shift basis
Land and Building
Projecting Cost
Plant and Machinery
Monthly requirements of Raw Materials, Utilities and Factory
Overheads
Labour and Staff
Working Capital requirements (3 months basis)
Total Capital Investment
Own Capital Requirements
Cost of Production (Monthly Basis)
Profitability
Herbal Liquid and Paste Detergents
Requisites of surfactants for formulating liquid detergents
Surfactants most commonly used
Consumption of Surfactants in Detergents (in kilotons)*
Builders
Viscosity Controlers
Other Ingredients
HOUSEHOLD LIQUID DETERGENTS FOR LAUNDERING
Heavy Duty
Manufacture of Paste Detergents
FORMULATIONS OF LIQUID AND PASTE DETERGENTS
Heavy Duty liquid Detergents
A few formulations are listed in Table 2
Light Duty Detergents
Liquid Shampoo
Liquid Shampoo Formulation
TYPICAL FORMULATIONS
Opaque viscous solution
Procedure
Light Duty : (for silk, wool etc.)
TYPICAL FORMULATIONS
Procedure
Shampoos
Rug Cleaning Liquid Detergent Formulations
A Recommended Formulation
Heavy-duty Liquid Detergents
Heavy-duty Liquid Detergent with 'Controlled
Opaque Lotion-type Light-duty Liquid Detergent
Light-duty Household Liquid Detergent
40% Detergent Paste
20 % Detergent Paste
Metal Degreasing Liquid Detergent
General-purpose Solvent-based Detergent
Textile Scouring Paste
Textile Degumming Detergent Paste
Low Foaming Liquid Detergents
Other Formulations of Synthetic Liquid Detergents
Light-duty Liquid Detergent
Light-duty Liquid Detergent for Dishwashing
Household Liquid Detergent Cleaner
Light-duty Clear Detergent Liquids
Light-duty Liquid Detergent Lotion
Heavy-duty Liquid Detergent
Scheme for the Manufacture of Liquid
Detergents on Small Scale
Land and Building
Projecting Cost
Plant and Machinery
Labour and Staff
Monthly Requirements of Raw Materials,
Utilities & Factory Overheads
Working Capital Requirements (3 months basis)
Total Capital Investment
Own Capital Requirements
Cost of Production (Monthly basis)
Profitability
Determination of Physical, Surface Active and
Performance Characteristics of Surfactants
Physical Characteristics
Density of Powdered Detergents
Apparent Bulk Density
Apparent density, g/ml = 40/V
Cup Density
Particle Size of Powdered Detergents
Hand Sieving
Machine Sieving
pH and Alkalinity
Free Alkalinity
Cloud Point of Non-ionic Detergents
Viscosity
Surface-Active Properties
Ring Method
Experimental Procedure
Determination of Surface Tension
Determination of Interfacial Tension
Calculation of Surface Tension
Calculation of Interfacial Tension
Correction Factor 'F' for the Ring Method Factor 'F' for
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
Dishwashing Tests
Laundry Evaluation
Split Item Tests
Bundle Test
Foam Tests
Dynamic Foam Test
Pour Foam Test
Wetting Test
Canvas Disc Test
Skein Test
Analysis of Surfactants
Separation of Surfactants
IDENTIFICATION OF COMPONENTS
Anionics
Cationics
Non-ionics
DETERMINATION OF SURFACTANTS
Total Organic Active Ingredient
Procedure
Correction for Sodium Chloride Content
ANIONIC SURFACTANTS
Preliminary Estimate of Mol. Wt.
Titration with Cationic Surfactants
Preparation and Standardization of Titrant
Titration of Sample
Amine Complexation Method
Determination of Alkylaryl Sulfonates
Determination of Alkylaryl Sulfonates in the
Presence of Short Alkyl Chain Sulfonates
Determination of Fatty Alcohol Sulfates
CATIONIC SURFACTANTS
Determination of Amine Oxides
Non-Ionic Surfactants
Column Techniques
Batch Technique
Analysis of Fats and Fatty Oils
Methods of Analysis
DETERMINATION OF PROPERTIES
Physical Characteristics
Procedure
Procedure
Chemical Characteristics
Procedures
COMPOSITION ANALYSIS
Gas Chromatography
Procedures
Spectroscopic Methods
Procedure
OTHER TESTS
Procedure
Analysis of Detergents
Methods of Analysis
Sampling
Separation
Procedure
IDENTIFICATION OF COMPONENTS
Procedures
Infrared Absorption Bands of Typical Commercial Detergents
Typical Analysis of a Linear Alkylate Sample
Procedure
DETERMINATION OF SURFACTANTS
Total Organic Active Ingredients
Procedure
Anionic Detergents
Procedure
Procedure
Cationic Detergents
Procedure
Nonionic Detergents
Procedure
DETERMINATION OF COMPONENTS
OTHER THAN SURFACTANTS
Abrasives
Procedure
Ammonia
Procedure
Carbonates
Procedure
Carboxymethylecellulose
Chlorides and Available Chlorine
Procedures
Enzymes
Procedure
Ethanol and Isopropyl Alcohol
Specific Gravity of Ethanol-Water Solutions at
Varying Concentrations
Specifie Gravity of Isopropyl Alcoho-Water
Solutions at Varying Concentrations
Procedure
Fatty Acids
Procedure
Glycerine
Hydrotropes
Procedure
Metallic Impurities
Procedure
Neutral Oil (Free Oil) and Free Fatty Alcohol
Procedure
Perborates
Procedure
Phosphates
Procedure
Silicates
Procedure
Solids
Procedure
Steam-Distillable Matter
Procedure
Sulfates
Procedure
Water
Procedure
Performance Tests
Procedure
Analysis of Soaps
Methods of Analysis
SAMPLING
Procedures
SEPARATION
Procedures
IDENTIFICATION
Procedures
DETERMINATION OF SOAP COMPOSITION
Procedures
DETERMINATION OF INORGANIC FILLERS AND
SOAP BUILDERS
Procedures
DETERMINATION OF OTHER ADDITIVES
Procedure
Munson and Walker Sugar Equivalents
Procedure
DETERMINATION OF IMPURITIES
Procedure
OTHER QUALITY CONTROL TESTS
ANALYSIS OF SOAPS CONTAINING SYNTHETIC DETERGENTS
ANALYSIS OF METALLIC SOAPS
Procedure
Beauty with Fruits and Vegetables
Apple
Apricot (Khubani)
Banana
Barley
Carrot
Castor Oil
Clove
Cucumber
Dhania
Egg
Honey
Lavender
Lemon
Orange
Palak
Peach
Potato
Pudina
Rose
Sage
Salt
Saunf
Tea
Thyme
Tomato
Yoghurt
Sulfonated Oils
Historical Background
Chemistry of Sulfation and Sulfonation
Applications of Sulfonated Oils
MANUFACTURE OF SULFONATED OILS
Sulfation
Sulfonation
SULFATION OF INDIVIDUAL OILS
Characteristics and Analysis of Sulfonated/Sulfated Oils

^ Top

Introduction :

Soaps and Detergents

Soaps

Soap is any salt of a fatty acid, and usually made by saponification of fatty oil with caustic soda. A specific type of salts lowers the surface tension of water and emulsifies fat having soil particles. But now-a-days herbal soaps are preferred by everyone.

Ordinary household bar soap or toilet soap is a mixture of sodium salts of long chain fatty acids. The fatty acids contain 8 to 22 carbon atoms. Potassium ammonium and some organic base like triethoanl amine soaps are, like sodium soap, also soluble in water making a specific type of solution called soap solution. Though the definition of soap covers heavy metalic soaps also, these differ from normal soaps in that they are insoluble in water and therefore do not function in the same manner, i.e. as detergents in water solution.

Soap has a long history of manufacture-from using tallow and wood ashes 2000 years ago to the present-day methods of using oils or fatty acids and caustic soda. Soaps today are far too sophisticated and are available in a wide variety of forms for specific end uses. The twentieth century has seen transformation of soap manufacture from the conventional batch process of boiling oils with caustic soda in kettles to continuous automated processes involving less steam and also higher recovery of glycerine as a by-product. Similarly processes for conversion of soap base to end products such as washing or toilet soaps have undergone a complete transformation.

Laundry soaps were earlier produced as blocks or slabs that were cut into bars and further into cakes. The current process is to spray-cool the molten liquid soap and extrude it as a continuous bar which is cut into billets, stamped and packed.

In the case of toilet soaps, the earlier practice was to dry the soap in a shelf drier, followed by milling, storing the milled chips, mixing with other ingredients in a mixer, milling again and extruding. The cut billets were manually stamped and wrapped. At present, toilet soaps are made through continuous processes. Oils or fatty acids and caustic soda are continuously saponified, spray dried, mixed and extruded. Machines are used to stamp, wrap and pack the soap into cardboard boxes.

There have been changes in formulation also. The import of tallow or other animal fats is banned in India for use in soaps. Practically all indigenous soaps are made from vegetable oils. Tallow is completely replaced by different herbal ingredients.

Synthetic Detergents

The search for substitutes for soaps started during the World Wars because of an acute shortage of oils and fats. Extensive research carried out in Germany and in the U.S. and U.K. eventually led to the adoption of edible oils has widened with the development of methods for pre-treating oils for removing objectionable colours, odours and other harmful compounds and making them suitable for soaps and for the manufacture of fatty acids. Thus, the formulation of oils for soapmaking has undergone a sea change as practically any oils available in commercial quantities can be suitably treated and used for making laundry as well as toilet soaps. This step is also necessary because the import of oils involves an outflow of foreign exchange which is already in short supply.

Linear alkyl benzene is one of the chief raw materials for heavy duty detergents. A number of other heavy duty detergent raw materials have since been marketed each having its own functional benefits. Currently a wide choice of raw materials is available depending on the end use-be it dish washing, for washing ordinary or delicate clothes, or bathing.

Earlier, detergents were made by the organised sector by spray-drying the detergent slurry containing the active ingredient, water-softening chemicals, colour, soil suspending chemical, optical brightener, and other builders that improved detergency. The product was sold as powder packed in moisture-proof cartons. Subsequently, detergents were available in different forms such as cakes and liquids for specific end uses.

More recently detergents containing enzymes and bleaches are available in the form of powders packed in plastic containers. These detergents are more effective in removing proteinaceous stains from the fabrics and in improving overall detergent efficiency.

Physical Properties of Soap

The following properties of pure soap are useful for design engineers and development chemists :

1. Viscosity,
2. Specific heat,
3. Latent heat,
4. Density
5. The 66% rule,
6. Salt distribution between soap curd and lye,
7. Glycerol distribution between soap curd and lye, and
8. Rate of drying of soap.

Viscosity

When an oil blend is saponified with caustic soda, the resultant soap has a viscosity which is much more than that of either the oil or the caustic soda solution. Above 75oC the viscosity increase is not significant, but below 75oC it increases rapidly.

The viscosity varies in the range of 10-20 Poise depending on the temperature of the soap and the composition of the oil blend. For the purpose of design of pumps, a viscosity of 15 Poise at 80oC may be assumed.

Specific heat

The specific heat of soaps at 0.56 cal/g is satisfactory for calculation of heat transfer rates.

Latent heat

The latent heat of fusion of soaps is approximately 38 cal/g.

Density of soap

The density of pure soap is in the range of 0.96-0.97 g/c.c. at 30oC. It may be noted that the figures quoted for viscosity, density, specific heat and latent heat are used frequently. In actual practice, variations around these figures may be expected depending on the composition of soaps.

66% Rule

A soap curd consists of soap hydrate containing 66% fatty acid and lye, identical in composition to that from which it has separated.

Salt distribution between curd and lye

Applying the 66% rule, the free solution in curd contains the same percentage of salt as the spent lye from which the curd has separated.

Glycerol distribution between curd and lye

The glycerol distribution in curd and lye is related to the water content of the two layers. Thus,

Water in curd	Glycerol in curd
Water in lye	Glycerol in lye

Rate of drying of soap

When soap is allowed to dry by exposure to ambient air, moisture is lost depending on the initial moisture content, its physical structure, duration of exposure, the atmospheric temperature and humidity. Moisture can also be retained or marginally absorbed by the soap when the atmospheric humidity is high.

When soap is dried, the moisture that diffuses from the centre to the surface brings with it some soap and electrolytes which eventually appear as 'bloom' especially if the soap contains fillers such as soda ash and sodium silicate.

Under certain conditions, soaps such as sodium oleate appear on the surface of the soap as hairy growth. This is a phenomenon observed in the case of soaps processed through spray cooling under vacuum, and derived from natural oils and fats which do not contain rosin. This problem can be eliminated by incorporating 1-2% rosin in the oil blend, or by using hydrogenated oil instead of natural hard oils as the hard oil component of the oil blend. It is possible that the elaidic acid in hydrogenated oil is responsible for suppressing the hairy growth on soaps.

Raw Materials Oils and Fats

(The Main Raw Materials for Soaps)

Classification of Fats/Oils

Glycerides of various fatty acids solid at room temperature are called fats and those liquid at room temperature are called oils.

Thus glycerides heaving higher melting points are termed fats and those having lower melting points are termed oils. And these in turn depend upon the nature of fatty acids content of esters. These acids fall in two series as follows.

1. Saturated series, such as stearic acid.
2. Unsaturated series.
1. Mono enoic acid containing one double bond, such as oleic acid.
2. Poly enoic acids containing more than one double bonds, such as linoleic, linolenic acids.

The more unsaturated acids give esters with lower melting points and these are the chief constituents of oils. The more saturated acids containing esters are of higher melting points and are chief constituents of fats (Table-2).

These oils are called fixed oils as distinguished from essential oils and petrolium oils. Fixed oils cannot be distilled without some decomposition under normal atmospheric pressure. Only fixed oil produces soap.

Fatty Oils are Further Classified as :

Animal origine : These usually occur as fats, such as tallow, lard etc. The liquid types include fish oils, fish liver oils, sperm oils etc.

Vegetable origin : These are again sub classified as :

A. On the Basis of Degree of Unsaturation

Drying	Iodine value above 130 (linseed oil, Tung oil).
Semi drying	Iodine value 90-130 (soyabean oil, cottonseed oil etc.)
Non drying	Iodine value below 90 (coconut oil, castor oil etc.)

B.Enedible Soap stocks (palm oil, coconut oil, mahua oil, rice bran oil other enedible varieties of vegetable oils).

C. Edible (sunflower oil, coconut oil, corn oil, soyabean oil, mustard oil, olive oil, cotton-seed oil etc.).

Theoretically any oil or fat can be used for making soap. However, in actual practice, the usage of an oil or fat is dictated by the following considerations :

1. Suitability
2. Availability in commercial quantity
3. Price

In India import of animal fat is banned. Therefore, the discussion on raw materials will be mainly confined to vegetable oils and fats. Table 2.1 shows the approximate availability of indigenous oils for soap-making.

Other oils used in small quantities are mango kernel, watermelon seed, tobacco seed, khakan, pilu, nahor, undi, dhupa, jute seed, tea-seed etc. for which reliable statistics are not available.

The suitability of an oil for soap-making depends upon its analytical characteristics and the end use of the soap to be produced. The physical hardness of soap depends on the type of oil used. In order to obtain the right hardness it is common to use a blend of oils for soap-making. This subject will be discussed further in Chapter 3. The usage of an oil is also determined by its price and availability.

Table 2.2 shows the analytical characteristics of common soapmaking oils.

Table 2.1 Availability of oils for Soapmaking (1991-1992)

Oils	Tonnes*
Rice bran	1,70,000
Sal seed	30,000
Acid Oils	1,00,000
Castor	60,000
Groundnut RGII	40,000
Coconut	30,000
Linseed	30,000
Neem	20,000
Mowrah	20,000
Karanja	20,000
Kusum	4,000

*Average estimate from ISTMA, DGTD.

For a better understanding of the quality of fatty raw materials for soaps, it is necessary to explain the significance of the following characteristics :

1. Colour
2. Saponification value
3. Iodine value
4. FFA content
5. Titre
6. Fatty acids, containing OH and CO groups.

Colour

All oils possess a characteristic colour. Light coloured oils are preferred for making soap. The colour of an oils can be measured quantitatively by using an instrument called tintometer. The colour reading is carried out by matching the colour of the oil taken in a glass cell of definite thickness against standard tinted glass slides and recorded as yellow, red and, if necessary, blue units. The standard instrument used for the purpose is Lovibond tintometer. All contracts for the purchase of oil specify the acceptable colour reading, and the size of the cell (container) in which the oil colour is to be taken. The oil is regraded as inferior if the colour reading is higher than the specified value. There is also a procedure for adding up the yellow, red and blue colours into a composite unit for the sake of convenience. This procedure is stipulated in the contract.

Saponification Value

This is abbreviated as sap value and is defined as the number of milligrams of potassium hydroxide required to fully saponify one gram of oil.

It should be noted that the saponification value of an oil is variable within limits. This is why a range of values is prescribed for each oil. The figure for any particular oil can be determined by standard chemical procedures.

Table 3 : Characteristics of Various Oils and Fats

Oil/Fat	Saponification value	Iodine value	Titer 0C	Unsaponifiable matter, %
Coconut	250-260	7.5-10.5	20-24	0.2-0.5
Palm karnel	245-255	14-22	20-25	2-0.8
Babassu kernel	247-253 12-16	22-24	02-07
Palm	195-205	44-58	40-47	0.2-0.8
Tollow (cattle)	192-198	31-47	39-52	0.2-0.3
Lard	190-203	46-66	34-42	0.2-0.4
Chinese vegetable tallow	180-205	3-40	45-55	1-1.5
Grease (fleshing)	190-195	35-40	0.8-1.0
Corn	187-193	103-130	14-20	1.3-2.0
Cottonseed	189-200	103-115	32-38	0.5-1.5
Groundnut	188-196	84-100	26-32	0.2-1.0
Castor	176-185	80-90	3-5	0.3-1.0
Ol Oive	188-195	78-85	17-20	0.5-1.5
Rice bran	180-195	92-110	27-29	3-5
MaMahua	180-190	-	-	-
LiLinseed	188-195	170-205	19-21	0.5-1.5
Neat's foot	192-197	67-73	24-27	0.1-0.7
Fish	180-195	125-190	23-30	0.5-4.0

Saponification value is by itself not a test for the identification of oils. It is a value which is used for calculating the requirement of caustic soda for fully saponifying the oil, and it helps in detecting gross adulteration in some cases.

Since saponification value is expressed in terms of caustic potash, it is necessary to apply a factor for conversion to caustic soda, while calculating the theoretical quantity of sodium hydroxide needed for the complete saponification of the oil charge.

Iodine Value

All oils mainly contain glycerides of fatty acids. These fatty acids can be broadly classified as saturated fatty acids e.g. stearic acid, and unsaturated fatty acids e.g. oleic acid. The chemical formulae of these fatty acids can be written as follows :

It can be seen that oleic acid is characterised by the presence of a double bond in its structure. These are other fatty acids with more than one double bond, e.g. linoleic acid has two double bonds and linolenic acid has three double bonds.

In general, oils containing unsaturated fatty acids give rise to soft soap. The greater the unsaturation, softer is the soap. Iodine value is a measure of the extent of unsaturation of oils; higher the iodine value, higher is the unsaturation. It is defined as the percentage of iodine absorbed by the oil. If the molecular weight of the unsaturated fatty acid is known, it is possible to calculate the iodine value of the fatty acid.

Example : Oleic acid having one double bond can absorb two atoms of iodine as shown by the following equation :

The molecular weight (rounded off to the nearest integer) of oleic acid is 282 and that of Iodine is 2 x 127 = 254. Thus 282 gms of oleic acid will absorb 252 gms of iodine. Therefore the iodine value of oleic acid (rounded off to the nearest integer) is(254/282) x 100 = 90.

Similarly, the iodine values of linoleic acid and linolenic acid are 180 and 270 respectively.

Oils contain unsaturated fatty acids in different proportions. Each oil is characterised by its iodine value and if the soap is derived from a blend of oils, the iodine value of the blend is important, as it indicates the consistency of the soap in terms of its hardness.

It has been seen that for soaps, a satisfactory iodine value of the oil blend should be 50-55.

As in the case of saponification value, the iodine value of an oil also shows variability because of minor changes in its fatty acid composition. Thus each oil has a range of iodine values which are given in Table 2.2.

Iodine values of oils are determined by a standard chemical method. Higher iodine values of oil blends lead to poor stability of soap, since the unsaturated fatty acid components become vulnerable to oxidation leading to rancidity.

Free fatty acids

Not all natural oils are pure glycerides. Oil seeds contain certain enzymes which have the property of splitting the oils present in oleaginous material into their fatty acid components.

The free fatty acid formation is fairly rapid in the case of rice bran and mowrah which depends upon the history of the bran and mowrah seeds respectively and the manner of extraction of the oils. The enzyme action starts in the seed and depending upon the age of the seeds and conditions of storage, the free fatty acid content of the freshly produced oil can vary. The enzymatic action is rapid during storage of rice bran. Some activity also occurs in raw unfiltered oils containing moisture.

Thus, all oils when purchased exhibit a free fatty acidity to the extent to which glycerol is not available from the oil for recovery during soap manufacture.

The importance of stipulating free fatty acids (FFA) content of oils is due to the fact that higher the FFA content, lower is the glycerol recovery. Therefore, oils with lower FFA are preferred.

The percentage of free fatty acids is calculated as lauric acid for coconut and palm kernel oils, and as oleic acid for most other oils. The free fatty acids can also be expressed in terms of the acid value, the number of milligrams of potassium hydroxide required to neutralise FFA in 1 gram of oil. The relationship between the acid value and % FFA (calculated as oleic acid) is : 1 unit of acid value = 0.503% FFA.

Titre

Titre represents the setting point of the fatty acids contained in an oil. It is a property that determines the composition of oil charge designed for soaps.

The titre is generally specified as a test for semi-hard and hard oils especially when such oils form the bulk component of the oil blend. Titre is not a test for identification of oils, but provides a tool for the quality control of major hard oil components and oil blends used in soapmaking.

Fatty acids containing-OH and -CO groups, hydroxy and keto-stearic acids

Hydroxy (OH) and keto-stearic acids (CO) are specified only in the case of processed castor oil for soap manufacture. They are related to work-softening of soaps and will be discussed under section 2.1.2.

Characteristics of individual Oils

Oils cannot be used alone in making good quality soaps. Based on the quality requirements of a soap such as its colour, odour, shelf life, etc., it is necessary to pre-treat the oil in order to render it suitable for use. Subsequently, the cost of the treated oil, its availability, and suitability will determine its level of usage in a formulation. In the case of laundry soaps, the level of usage of an oil and pre-treatment needs are more flexible, since the soap is used only for washing clothes. On the other hand, in toilet soaps the level of usage of a each oil and its quality standards are critical. The flexibility can be increased if the oil is split into its fatty acid, distilled, and the distillate used for soapmaking.

The characteristics of some important vegetable oils used in soapmaking are discussed below :

Rice bran oil

Rice bran oil is a very important source of indigenous oil that has a vast potential for use in soaps. The resources are however not fully tapped.

Two grades of the oil are commercially available: the edible grade with low FFA content (under 10%) and the soap grade with FFA content up to 60%.

The oil is dark brown colour and it is difficult to measure its colour in standard instruments such as the Lovibond tintometer. Hence, the colour is normally not specified when purchasing the oil.

When rice bran oil is saponified, it gives soft soap and therefore it is necessary to hydrogenate it to an iodine value of 45 units for use as a hard oil component. Because of the dark colour, it is also necessary to bleach the oil prior to use. Conventional bleaching by using activated bleaching earth is unsatisfactory. Chemical bleaching with sodium chlorate or chlorite in an acidic medium is adequate for use of the oil in laundry soap. The method for chemical bleaching has been described later in this chapter.

For use in toilet soaps, the hydrogenated oil is split under pressure into its fatty acids which are then distilled. The distillate, which has a light colour, is used for making toilet soaps when mixed with other oils and/or fatty acids.

The analytical characteristics of soft as well as hard rice bran oil are shown in Table 2.2. The characteristics of the rice bran fatty acids are somewhat similar except for the colour which is very light and has a pale pinkish tint.

Sal

Sal is a natural hard fat of tree origin found in abundant quantities in the remote forests of West Bengal, Assam, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa. The collection of seeds is however inadequate, thus limiting its availability. The oil is dark coloured and needs to be bleached prior to use. The colour which behaves like chlorophyll in nature is destroyed by chemical bleaching, or by bleaching with a highly active bleaching earth. Even after chemical bleaching, the oil has a dark colour which restricts its usage (10-20%) to coloured toilet soaps.

Table 2.2 gives the characteristics of sal oil from which it is evident that there is no need to hydrogenate the oil for use in soapmaking.

Castor oil

Castor oil differs from the conventional soapmaking oils in that the oil contains glyceride of ricinoleic acid, which has in its chemical structure a hydroxyl group, which confers certain undesirable properties from the point of view of using the oil in soapmaking, e.g. ease of salting out the soap from the saponification mass. It is, therefore, necessary to modify the oil by a process of dehydroxylation. Even after dehydroxyation, the oil gives rise to a soft soap. Therefore, a hydrogenation step is also necessary.

The procedure that is adopted on a commercial scale is, to hydrogenate the oil to an iodine value of less than 5, under controlled conditions to minimise the formation of keto-stearic, conjugated dienoic acid, estolides and elaidic acids. The oil is dehydroxylated using acid activated earth under vacuum. The resultant oil may be termed as castor olein since the bulk of the ricinoleic acid in the oil is converted during the hydrogenationdehydroxylation step to oleic acid. (Refer patent no. 151711 for processing castor oil).

The processed castor oil can be used to the extent of 30-40% in laundry soaps and up to 30% in toilet soaps. However, processed castor oil is more expensive as compared to processed rice bran oil, and hence its usage is generally restricted to toilet soaps.

Table 2.2 gives the typical analytical data on processed castor oil, which shows that the oil contains a small proportion of hydroxy and keto-stearic acids. Uncontrolled levels of these constituents can lead to difficulties in plodding of the soap, since the soap undergoes what may be termed as 'work softening' due to mechanical working in the plodder. Extrusion of bars becomes difficult.

Coconut oil

Coconut oil is an essential component of oils used for making toilet soap. Nowadays it is not generally used in laundry soaps because of its high price. The advantage of coconut oil is that it gives a hard soap of light colour and profuse lather. The level of usage depends on the grade of toilet soap and varies in the range of 6-20%. While a bleaching and deodorisation step is desirable this it not essential unless the oil is used for high grade toilet soaps.

The distilled fatty acids of normal or hydrogenated coconut oil are incorporated into toilet soap as a superfatting agent for producing rich and creamy lather.

The analytical characteristics of coconut oil in Table 2.2. shows that the oil is unique in comparison with the rest of the oils because it has a very low iodine value, high saponification value and a desirable fatty acid composition.

Linseed oil

Linseed oil is mainly used in the paint and linoleum industries. Its usage in soapmaking is limited because it is expensive.

The oil is highly unsaturated and if used without pre-treatment would give soft and sticky soap with poor stability. It is essential to hydrogenate the oil prior to its use in making soap. Hydrogenation has to be carried out selectively so that all the linolenic and most linoleic acids present are converted to oleic/stearic acids. A final deodorisation step is desirable. The level of usage of this oil for making soap will depend on its price, availability, and the processing method of the oil.

Typical characteristics of the processed oil are shown in Table 2.2.

Raw grade II groundnut oil (RG II)

Raw Grade II groundnut oil is permitted by the government to be used in soapmaking since it is not considered satisfactory for edible purposes. The Grade I variety is not permitted for conversion to soap.

The oil is mainly obtained by the solvent extraction of groundnut oil cake. It has a dark colour and gives soft soap. The bleached oil is used as a soft oil component in toilet soap base to the extent of 5-10% mainly for balancing the hardness of the soap. It can also be used as a hard oil after bleaching and hydrogenation.

Table 2.2 shows the typical analytical characteristics of the oil.

Mowrah

Mowrah is a natural hard oil used usually up to 30% of the oil blend for toilet soaps depending on its price and availability. When solvent extracted mowrah can be used in laundry soap, the expeller variety is used for toilet soaps, since the stability of these soaps is adversely affected by solvent extracted oil. The expeller oil is bleached by activated earth, and the filtered oil is deodorised prior to use. Trans-esterification by methanolysis, followed by distillation of methyl ester, is an alternative method for upgrading the oil.

Table 2.2 shows the analytical characteristics of mowrah oil.

Kusum oil

Kusum oil is a natural hard oil and can be used for making laundry soaps, after suitable pre-treatment to destroy the cyano-glucosides present in the oil to the extent of 1.2 to 1.5 %. In the absence of pre-treatment, sodium cyanide is produced on saponification. This leads to pollution and allied problems relating to the quality of glycerol recovered. Unlike conventional oils, kusum oil yields only 4-5% glycerol which is usually discarded.

Pre-treatment involves hydrolysis of the cyano-glucosides, using zinc oxide and sodium bisulphite under pressure, followed by settling and removal of the aqueous layer.

The treated oil contains 50-100 ppm residual cyano-glucosides. The oil is saponified separately, and the lye containing glycerol is discarded after dilution with water. The soap is mixed with other soap bases, forming part of the laundry soap base, and processed into the finished product.

Neem oil

Neem is a natural semi-hard oil. It has a strong and characteristic odour that is not desirable in conventional soaps. Nevertheless, the oil has medicinal activity on the skin. Toilet soaps are produced using 30-40% neem oil in the formulation, after subjecting the oil to a deodorising treatment, and using an appropriate perfume and other additives for masking the base odour. For analytical characteristics of this oil please refer to Table 2.2.

Neem oil can also be used to produce neem fatty acids by splitting the oil in an autoclave, or can be used as such after an alcoholic alkali or by physical refining.

Acid oils

During alkali refining of oils in vanaspati factories, a by-product called soap stock is produced in two stages during pre-refining and post-refining. During post-refining, soap stock is obtained in smaller proportions and has a lower iodine value. The mixture of soap stocks can be used as a component for making laundry soaps.

Alternatively, the soap stocks may be split by boiling with sulphuric acid leading to the production of mixed acid oils. These acid oils are dark coloured, and are used as soft oil components of the oil blend used for making laundry soaps, at levels determined by the grade of soap and composition of the remaining oil blend. Typical analytical characteristics of the acid oil are given in Table 2.2.

Although soap stock is cheaper than acid oil, it is bulky, contains impurities and large quantities of water. Certain impurities are removed during the production of acid oil. Some manufacturers use a bit of both when there is limited capacity for handling all the soap stock that is produced. The increased use of edible oils with high FFA content for producing vanaspati has led to an increase in the production of soap stock. Unless soap stock is converted to acid oil, the production of vanaspati may be hampered for want of space for the storage of soap stock. For this reason the acid oil production line is considered an essential wing in vanaspati factories.

These is no colour specification for acid oils since these are variable in composition and their colours are too dark to be read correctly in ordinary tintometers. Consequently, acid oils are mainly used in the production of laundry soaps where the colour of the finished soap is not critical. The actual level of usage will, of course, depend on the grade of soap aimed at.

Acid oils are also difficult to bleach with conventional bleaching earths. Chemical bleaching with 2-3% sodium chlorite or chlorate on oil has been found more effective, but can only upgrade the oil to the laundry soap grade. Another possibility is de-gumming using phosphoric acid (described in a later section) followed by bleaching using superior quality bleaching earth.

In general, small scale, soap manufacturers use a higher proportion of acid oil in the oil charge than do the organised soap manufacturers, mainly due to price considerations.

One way of upgrading acid oil for use in toilet soaps is by splitting the oil and distilling the mixed fatty acids to produce a light coloured distillate. The distillate can be hydrogenated if necessary and used as a component up to certain limits based on development work.

Karanja Oil

This is an oil with a rather unpleasant smell and dark colour, and has limited usage in good grade soaps. The analytical characteristics given in Table 2.2 show that it is a soft oil. It can thus be used in making soap only after hydrogenation. The oil is difficult to bleach, and finds its application at levels of 5% in oil blends for laundry soaps.

Sometimes, an alcoholic alkali refining method is followed for the pre-treatment of karanja oil.

Raw Materials : Herbal Products

This chapter lists and describes the most important herbal products including essential oils used in the manufacture of herbal soaps, shampoos and detergents. To help you, we have grouped together that are related by genus or by association. The plant name appears alphabetically in a bold heading followed by botanical name in italics. Historical and anecdotal information is followed by the individual headings described below with its medicinal properties.

ACACIA ARABICA

A. indica Benth

(N.O. - Mimosaceae)

Sankrit : Babbula

Hindi : Babul

Parts Used : Bark, gum, leaves, seeds, pods.

Historical Aspects : It is used traditionally in ayurveda for a number of afflictions. The bark, which is markedly astringent, was considered a remedy in diarrhoea, dysentery, and as a mouthwash and gargle in aphthous stomatitis, in a decoction. The gum is a powerful demulcent and relieves irritation in infections of the throat and larynx. The twig is commonly used for brushing the teeth.

Botanical Description : A small tree with straight sharp pointed spikes, occurring in pairs beneath the petioles. Leaves: 6-12 pinnae and 20-40 leaflets. Flowers : In rounded heads, axillary, supported upon short peduncles, with bracts above the middle. Pods : Stalked, straight, subindehiscent, persistently grey, with fissures between the 8-12 seeds.

Phytochemistry : It has been studied extensively. Bark : Phenolic constituents and tannins, quercetin, catechin, gallic acid, catechol, epicatechol, dicatechol, epigallocatechin. Leaves contain tannins, carotene, and vitamin C. Pods have 41% tannins. Gum contains polysaccharides, calcium, magnesium, salts of arabic acid, malic acid, L-arabinose, D-galactose, L-rhamnose, oxidative enzymes.

Pharmacology : Alcoholic extract of bark has an antiprotozoal action against E. histolytica. CNS depressant activity was present as seen by amphetamine hyperactivity test. Bark tannins killed bacterial virus (E-coli R host cell) at 1:25,000 dilution within 5 minutes.

Clinical Usage : The juice of tender leaves is used as a lotion in conjunctivitis, while a leaf paste in cold water is used as an anti-dysenteric agent. The root powder is used in leucorrhoea. The bark is used widely as a demulcent, in conjunctivitis, and the gum as an anti-pyretic, and anti-diarrhoeal medicine. The bark extracts are used in medicinal sops.

ACALYPHA INDICA

(N.O. - Euphorbiaceae)

Sans.-Arittmanjarie. Eng.-Indian acalypha. Hind. - Kuppu; Khokali, Ben.-Muktajhuri; Sveta-basanta., Guj.- Vanchi Kanto. Mab.- Khokli; Khajoti. Tel.-Kuppichettu; Harita-manjiri; Kuppinta or Muripindi. Tam.-Kuppivaeni; Kuppaimeni. Can.-Kuppigida. Mal.-Kuppamani. Kon.-Kunkmiphal. Uriya-Indramaris. Sinb.-Kupa-menya.

Habitat: Common annual shrub in Indian gardens and waste places throughout the plains of India.

Parts Used: Leaves, root, stalks (young shoots) and flowers.

Constituents: Alkaloids "acalypus" and "acalyphine."

Action : Cathartic, anthelmintic, expectorant, emetic, anodyne and hypnotic.

Preparations : Infusion of root, powder, decoction, cataplasm, succus (juice expressed), tincture and liquid extract.

Uses : Leaves possess laxative properties; "are used as a substitute for Senega," are used in the form of powder or decoction; mixed with gralic they are used as anthelmintic in worms. Mixed with common salt they are applied to scabies; and their juice mixed which oil forms an application in rheumatic arthritis. Expressed juice of the leaves is a safe, certain and speedy emetic for children in one teaspoonful (1 drachm) doses, in cases of croup; in smaller doses it is expectorant, and is useful in chronic bronchitis, asthma and consumption. The decoction is employed in ear-ache as instillation and also as fomentation round the aching ear; and a cataplasm of the bruised leaves is applied to syphilitic ulcers, to maggot-eaten sores and also to relieve the pain of snake-bites. "Juice from fresh leaves may be employed in scabies and other skin diseases, and with lime and onion it is a good stimulating application in rheumatism." Powder of dry leaves is used in bed sores. In congestive headache a piece of cotton saturated with the expressed juice of the plant or leaves and inserted into each nostril is said to relieve it by causing haemorrhage from the nose. In cases of obstinate constipation of children the leaves ground into a paste and made into a ball and introduced into the rectum, relaxes the sphincter ani and produces free motions. An infusion of the root or the root bruised in water, acts as a cathartic. In the treatment of acute mania the following is recommended.-Macerate three ounces of the fresh leaves, stalks and flowers in a pint of spirit of wine in a closed jar for seven days, occasionally agitating the same, strain, press, filter and add sufficient spirits of either to make one pint; dose is from 30 to 60 minims frequently repeated during the day in honey. Hakims treat cases of acute mania and hysteria in early stages by the following mode :-Take one ounce of fresh juice of the leaves and dissolve in it six grains of common salt; drop a little of this mixture in each nostril every six hours from morning and then place the patient under cold shower baths for three mornings regularly; this causes a quantity of mucus and other matter to escape from the nostrils.

The juice gives cooling effect to skin diseases and is extensively used in herbal soap solution.

ANDROPOGON MURICATUS. Retz. or A. Squarrosus.

(N.O. - Gramineae)

Sans. Usheera; Veeranam; Amranalam. Eng. Cuscus grass. Hind. Khas; Khas bena. Ben. Khaskhas. Guj. Valo. Mah. Vala. Gwalior. Khus. Tel. Kuruvaeru; Vetti-vellu; Vetti-veru. Tam. Vettiver. Mal. Ramachham. Can. Lavanchi; Mudivala. Kon. Bhanavalo. Punj. Panni.

Habitat - Coromandel Coast, Mysore, Bengal, Rajputana, and Chota Nagpur.

Parts Used - Fibrous wiry roots from the rhizome.

Constituents - A volatile essential oil, resin, colouring matter, a free acid, a salt of lime, oxide of iron and woody matters.

Action : Tonic, refrigerant, stomachic, stimulant, anti-spasmodic, disphoretic, diuretic and emmenagogue.

Action and Uses in Ayurveda and Siddha - Tikta rasam, Mathura anurasam, seetha-veeryam, kapha pitta-haram, lago, pachanam, sthambhanam, in jwaram, chardhi, trishna, rakta dosham, visarpam, daham, krichram, vranam.

Action and Uses in Unani - Hot 20, Dry 20. Tonic to heart and brain, bood-purifier, headache, palpitation."

Preparations - Powder, dose - 5 to 30 grains; infusion (1 in 40), dose - 1 to ounces; paste for external application. Essence or oil or otto, dose : 1 to 2 minims on loaf sugar.

Uses : Being a cooling medicine it is in the form of infusion a grateful refreshing drink in fevers, inflammations and irritability of the stomach. Externally a paste of root is rubbed on the skin to remove oppressive heat or burning of the body. By mixing it with red sandalwood and a fragrant wood called padma kasta (all in powder) to a tub of water an aromatic bath is prepared. Its essence or oil or otto is given in two minim doses to check the vomitting of cholera, and it used in perfumery. Grass used in the form of cigarettes and smoked with benzoin relieves headache.

Angelica (Angelica archangelica)

Thought to have originated in Syria, angelica was one of the few aromatics exported to the Orient. The oil was a common flavoring and apothecary drug, and magical powers were attributed to it as the "root of the Holy Ghost." The way angelica hovers over the herb garden, it's no wonder! It offers little fragrance until you bite into a seed or snap a root. It still flavors Cointreau liqueur.

Family : Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)

Extraction : Distilled from root or seed. Absolute. The root oil is stronger and slightly more expensive, and it smells earth/herbal; the seed oil is spicy/peppery.

Medicinal Action : Angelica regulates menstruation, is a digestive tonic and stops coughing.

Emotional Attribute : The fragrance relieves depression (especially nerve-related) and provides a new outlook on problems.

Considerations : Use angelica very carefully : it can overstimulate the nervous system, and the root oil contains photosensitizing bergaptene.

Anise (Pimpinella anisum)

Originally form Asia Minor and Egypt, anise now grows throughout the Mediterranean. Turner's 1551 Herbal recommends it "maketh the breth sweater." The oil's delightful taste still flavors pharmaceuticals, confections, toothpaste, "licorice" candy in the United States, and numerous alcoholic beverages around the world such as French anisette, Turkish raki, Latin American aguardiente, Latvian kummel, Spanish ojen and Greek ouzo.

Family : Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)

Extraction : Distilled from the seed, anise has a sweet, licoricelike scent. The oil solidifies at room temperatures.

Medicinal Action : Anise is calming, and it reduces muscle spasms, indigestion and coughing. It is also mildly hormonal, increasing breast milk.

Emotional Attribute : Smelling anise enhances relaxation, sleep patterns, emotional balance and even a sense of humor. It relieves stress from over-work. Said to be aphrodisiac, anise overcomes heartache.

Considerations : The oil can be narcotic and can slow circulation, so be careful. Although it may not be detrimental, it should be avoided by those with problems related to high estrogen. The anethole found in anise causes skin dermatitis in sensitive individuals.

Associated Oil

Star Anise (Illicium verum)-This Oriental tree oil has similar chemistry and scent, so it sometimes replaces anise. It is distilled mostly from seed and occasionally from the star shaped fruit. The related I. religiosum was once combined with rue and pyrethrum as a fumigant to keep bugs out of books.

AZADIRACHTA INDICA.

(N.O. Meliaceae)

Sans. - Raevipriya; Vembaka; Vranashodhakari; Nimba; Arishta; Pichumanthah. Eng. - Neem or Margosa Tree; Indian Lilac. Fr. - Azadirae d'Inde; Margousier. Ger. - Indischer Zedrach. Hind., Duk., Punj. & Ben. - Nim or Nimb; Nimga-chh. Guj. - Limba. Mah. - Kadunimba. Bom. - Nim; Balanimb; Tel. - Vepa. Tam. - Vembu; Veppan. Mal. - Veepan. Can. - Bevina-mara; Kahibevu. Kon. - Beva-rooku. Pers. - Neem. Sinh. - Kohumba. Burm. - Tamabin; Kamabin Malay - Dawon Nambu; Baypay.

Habitat - Indigenous to and cultivated nearly all over India and in Burma.

Parts Used - Every part of the plant - bark, root-bark, young fruit, nut or seed, flowers, leaves, gum and toddy or sap. "Bark and leaves are of particular interest from medicinal point of view."

Constituents - "The bark exudes a clean bright amber-coloured gum which is collected in small tears or fragments. It contains a bitter alkaloid named 'margosine' in long white needles, as a double salt of margosine and soda-a neutral, amorphous resin believed to reside in the inner bark or liber. Leaves contain a small quantity of bitter substance of a similar character but much more soluble in water. This substance also contained in the bark is a hydrate of the resin which it closely resembles in its properties. Seeds contain about 10 to 31 p.c. of a yellow bitter fixed oil which is extracted by boiling or by pressure. "The oil is deep yellow in colour and has a strongly disagreeable acid taste; it has a specific gravity of 0.9235 at 15.50C; at about 100 to 70C, if congealed without losing its transparency; the oil contained free and volatile fatty acids. After standing for about 36 hours, the freshly expressed oil deposited a white sediment which on microscopical examination was found to be amorphous in character. The colour reactions of the margosa oil were not characteristic. The volatile fatty acids probably consist of mixture of stearic and oleic acids with a small amount of lauric acid.

The oil contains following constituents : (1) Sulphur 0.427 per cent; (2) a very bitter yellowish substance obtained from the alcoholic extract of the oil, which is supposed to be an alkaloid; (3) Resins; (4) Glucosides, indifinite; (5) Fatty acids.

We had also prepared an acid named 'Margosic acid' and its salts from the neem oil. had also been prepared (The process is decribed in Chopra's "Indigenous Drugs of India"). The salts are nearly white in colour and are soluble in water. They are extremely bitter to taste.

Some consider that the objectionable odour of the neem oil is chiefly due to organic sulphur compounds which are slightly volatile. On prolonged steam distillation of the oil a volatile sulphur compound slowly distils over and collects on the condensed water. A bitter principle, about 200 times as bitter as the original oil, was separated by these workers. The ultimate analysis of the bitter substance showed that it consists of two different portions-an amorphous and a crystalline substance. The crystalline substance has been termed "margosopicrin."

However, some consider that the odorous element in the oil consists of an evil-smelling essential oil which remains in a state of solution of the oil itself and cannot be easily separated on distillation.

It was shown that the bitterness of the oil is due to the presence of the sodium salt of an acid and partly to the presence of the free acid which are held in solution in the oil. The acid contains sulphur in its molecule and is unsaturated."

The toddy or sap contains glucose, sucrose, gums and colouring matter, proteids and ash, containing potassium, iron, aluminium, calcium and carbon dioxide. Neem oil contains margosic acid, glycerides of fatty acids (soluble 3.5 p.c., insoluble 89.1 p.c.), butyric acid and a trace of valeric acid detected as volatile acids, a small quantity of neutral resin, two other acid resins and a small quantity of an alkaloidal substance. Cake left after expression of oil was found to contain a neutral principle, organic matter 83 to 84 p.c., moisture, and ash 6 to 9 p.c. containing nitrogen and phosphoric anhydride.

Action : Root-bark and young fruit are astringent, tonic and antiperiodic. Bark is bitter, tonic, astringent, anti-periodic and also vermifuge. Fruit is purgative, emollient and anthelmintic. Leaves are discutient; leaf juice is anthelmintic. Oil from nuts and leaves is local stimulant, insecticide and antiseptic. Flowers are stimulant, tonic and stomachic. Gum form the bark is a stimulant and demulcent tonic. Toddy is refrigerant, nutrient and alterative tonic. The drug also possesses antispiroc aetal and emmenagogue properties.

Most of the ingredients of herbal soaps are cooked in Neem oil.

Basil (Ocimum basilicum)

Basil comes from India, but has been cultivated in the Mediterranean for thousands of years and is now also grown in North Africa. The genus name Ocimum is probably from the Greek word "to smell." Once made into cleansing water for the hands and feet, it provides modern perfumes and soaps with an inexpensive substitute for mignonette (lily of the valley). The basils are so diverse in their scents, it has been suggested that they be classified according to chemistry instead of botany. You need to grow your own to have a complete collection, since only a few types are distilled. We have fun home-distilling a variety of spicy, citrus and fruity basils into hydrosols.

Family : Lamiaceae (Labiatae)

Extraction : Distilled from the leaf and flowering tops. The scent is sweet and spicy.

Medicinal Action : The scent relieves headaches, sinus congestion, head colds and resulting loss of smell. Basil treats herpes, shingles, nausea (even from chemotherapy), indigestion and sore muscles. Basil hormonally stimulates adrenals, menstruation, childbirth and production of breast milk.

Cosmetic/Skin Use : Used for oily skin conditions.

Emotional Attribute : Basil's uplifting effect overcomes a lack of confidence, indecisiveness, negative thoughts, stress, rattled nerves, hysteria and mental fatigue. It is said to increase awareness of one's surroundings. Gerard found the buoyant smell "good for the heart" and said it "taketh away sorrowfulness."

Considerations : Large dosages can be overstimulating and may eventually stupefy.

Associated Oils : Reunion Basil (O. basilicum)- This variation from the Comoro and Reunion Islands (hence its name) has a harsher, more herbal scent. It flavours food and dental products. It contains very little linalol, but has 70-88 percent methyl chavicol, a skin irritant, so use carefully.

Eest Indian Basil (O. gratissimum) : Chemotypes of this East Indian species supply high percentages of thymol or eugenol. Hairy Basil (O. Canum) : From East Africa, this basil is delightfully spicy because of its high content of methyl cinnamate and camphor.

BALSAMODENDRON MUKUL, HOOK. or B. agollocha.

(N.O. - Burseraceae)

Sans. - Guggula; Kou-shikaha. Eng. - Salaitree; Gum-gugul; Indian Bedellium. Hind., Duk., Tel., & Mah. - Gugal. Ben. Guggul; Mukul Can. Guggula. Tam - Gukkulu; Gukkal; Mastsatchi Kungiliyam. Tel - Maihakshi, Gukkulu. Guj - Gugara; Gugal. Arab. - Mogla; Mool; Mokhil; Aphalatana. Pers. - Baijahundana. Sinh. - Rata-dummula.

Habitat - Sind, Rajputana, Eastern Bengal, Berars, Assam, Khandesh and Mysore.

Characteristics - When fresh the oleo-gum-resin is moist, viscid, fragrant and of a golden colour. It burns in fire, melts in the sun, and forms a milky emulsion with hot water.

Parts Used - Gum

Constituents - Volatile oil, gum-resin and bitter principle.

Action - Demulcent, aperient, alterative, carminative, anti- spasmodic and emmenagogue. "The pharmcological action of the olco-resin resembles in many ways the action of copaiba and cubels. It has no action on the unbroken skin, but on the abraded skin and on the mucous membranes, it acts as an astringent and antispetic. When taken internally it acts as a bitter, stomachic and carminative, stimulating the appetite and improving the digestion. It produces a sensation of warmth in the stomach and is quickly absorbed. Like all oleo-resins it causes an increase of leucocytes in the blood and stimulates phagocytosis. It is excreted by the skin, mucous membranes and the kidneys.

The gum is mixed with sulphur, catechu and borax for the treatment of gonorrhoea, dropsy, foul ulcers and syphilis etc. The gum cooked in coconut oil/Neem oil are used in the manufacture of medicated ayurvedic soaps and detergents.

BALSAMODENDRON MYRRHA (N.O. Burseraceae)

Sanskrit : Vola, Rasagandha

Hindi: Bol, Bal.

Parts Used : Gum from the bark of the tree

Historical Aspects : Myrrh of commerce is obtained from the resinous exudation of the tree B. myrrha. There are at least three varieties, two of them being known as Karam and Mutiya. It is a rare and costly products, very often adulterated with gum of commiphora mukul which is known as false myrrh.

Habitat : Indigenous to North Eastern Africa. Collected in Southern Arabia, Abyssinia, Persia, Siam and sold in Indian bazars.

Botanical Description : A small tree or low bush about 3 m in height with a large trunk, many knotty irregular branches, terminating at right angles in sharp spines. Leaves trifoliate, fruit long and pyriform. Gum resin is obtained from phloem which contains ducts and cavities.

Pharmacognosy : The phloem contains schizogenous ducts and lysigenous cavities which are filled with yellowish granular resinous liquid. With incisions in the bark, the liquid exudes out and hardens to a reddish brown mass. The gum resin is collected from spontaneous exudation from cracks or fissures on the bark. Myrrh occurs in irregular agglutinated tears or masses. Its external surface is rough and reddish brown, covered with yellowish dust. Thin pieces are translucent or almost transparent, odour is aromatic and taste aromatic, bitter and acrid.

Phytochemistry : Myrrh contains volatile oil 2 to 10%, resin 25 to 40% and gum 57 to 61% and 3 to 4% impurities. Volatile oil is called as myrrhol and contains cuminicaldehyde, eugenol, m-cresol, pinene, limonene, dipentene and two sesquiterpenes.

Ayurvedic Properties : Guna : Ruksha, Laghu. Rasa : Katu, Tikta, Kashaya, Veerya : Ushna. Vipaka : Katu. Dosha : Tridoshahara. Karma : Pradarahara.

Pharmacology : Volatile oil of myrrh exhibits anti-fungal activity against Rhizopus nigricans, Saccharomyces cerviseae, Fusarium oxysporum and Gibberella funtukaros. X-ray irradiation causes only slight increase in anti-fungal activity.

Clinical Usage : Myrrh has stimulant and antiseptic properties and is mainly used in medicinal tooth powder and mouth wash and soap. Useful in dyspepsia, it is also given in menstrual disorders and as a stimulating expectorant in chest diseases, especially in chronic bronchitis and asthma. Externally it is used as an astringent, also for stimulating healing in ulcerated conditions and as a gargle for spongy gums and in ulcerated sore throat. It is used to prevent hair loss. Tincture of myrrh is useful in menstrual disorders and chlorosis in young girls.

Bay (Laurus nobilis)

Also called "laurel" bay leaves were once placed on the heads of headache sufferers and Greek scholars. Today, we still confer a baccalaureate degree, which means "noble berry tree" in French. Crush a leaf and the smell is so intense it can produce a headache as easily as cure one. Apparently bay has even more interesting properties : the ancient Greek priestesses at Delphi sat over the burning fumes to increase their prophetic visions.

Family : Lauraceae

Extraction : Distilled from leaf (occasionally berry). Smells pungent and spicy.

Medicinal action : Bay is a stimulant to lymph, sinuses lungs, and circulation. It makes a very good liniment.

Emotional Attribute : Smelling bay is stimulating and is said to improve memory.

Associated Oils :

Bay Rum Tree (Pimenta racemosa) : Also called "oil of pimento," this is the source of most commercial bay oil and the scent in Bay Rum cologne, which was originally from the Virgin Islands and made with rum. Cooler and sweeter than true bay, it scents bay soaps, cosmetics and colognes.

Allspice (P. dioica) : Familiar to cooks, this culinary seed tastes like a combination of cloves, cinnamon and pepper. It is the source of pimento water, an indigestion remedy in the West Indies and South America, where this evergreen grows. The name comes from the Spanish pimiento because the seed (actually a berry) looks like black pepper. It is old as "Bay" oil.

Benzoin (Styrax benzoin)

The Arabs, who traded it for a frankincense substitute, called this Southeast Asia tree "incense of Java," or luban jawi. The Europeans interpreted this as benjawi and pronounced it "benjamin," then "benzoin." They made solid "vanilla" pomades from it. In India, the fragrance is sacred to the Brahma-Shiva-Vishnu triad, and Malays use it to deter devils during rice-harvesting ceremonies. The sweeter Sumatran S. tonkinense, especially the thick "almond tears," is considered better quality than the Sumatran S. benzoin.

Family : Styracaceae

Extraction : Solvent extracted from gum resin. Absolute, often thinned with ethyl glycol. It has a sweet, vanilla-like odor.

Medicinal Action : Once called "friar's balsam" because it soothes coughs and relieves lung congestion, a formula is still sold by this name. It is also used to treat poor circulation and muscular problems.

Cosmetic/Skin Use : Benzoin is antiseptic, anti-fungal, protects chapped skin and increases skin elasticity. Emotional Attribute : This fragrance is for those who feel anxious, emotionally blocked, lonely or exhausted, especially from a life crisis. It creates a "safe space" that protects one from outside interference.

Considerations : Skin sensitizing.

Associated Oils :

Balsam of Tolu (Myroxylon balsamum) : A Colombian tree once cultivated by the Incas for its vanilla-like fragrance and medicine. The oil, distilled from the gum resin, treats lung congestion, scabies, eczema, and ringworm. Skin sensitizing.

Balsam of Peru (M. balsamum var. Pereirae) : This El Salvadoran tree got its name because it was shipped with Peruvian goods. The taste is hotter and more bitter than tolu. Skin sensitizing.

Styrax (Liquidamber orientalis) : The vanilla-like resin from this tree is used for indigestion, intestinal worms, poor appetite (especially due to illness), insomnia and menstrual irregularity. It can be toxic in quantity. L. styraciflua is the American variety. Skin sensitizing.

Bergamot (Citrus bergamia)

The small green fruit produced by this Mediterranean citrus tree aren't edible or pretty, but the smell they emit is wonderful! Unfortunately, you must live in a warm climate like California to grow them. First mentioned in the 17th century En la Parfumerie Francoise, the fruit was named after Bergamo, Italy, where the oil originated. It is still grown in Italy, mostly in Calabria. Bergamot scents many colognes and flavors Earl Grey tea and some candies. Don't confuse this citrus with the common herb-garden bee balm (Monarda didyma), also called bergamot.

Family : Rutaceae.

Extraction : Cold-pressed from almost-ripe fruit rind. Fresh, clean scent.

Medicinal Action : An anti-inflammatory and antiseptic, bergamot enhances immunity; treats genital, urinary, mouth and throat infections, flu, herpes, shingles and chicken pox; and aids digestion. It is a traditional Italian folk medicine for fever and intestinal worms.

Cosmetic/Skin Use : Bergapten-free bergamot is suitable on most skin conditions and eczema, and is a deodorizer.

Emotional Attribute : Sniff bergamot to reduce depression, anxiety, insomnia or compulsive behavior cycles (including eating disorders). It balances emotions, instilling composure.

Considerations : Because it contains bergapten, bergamot is photosensitizing (i.e. may cause a reaction when skin is exposed to the sun). A bergapten-free essential oil is available.

Associated Oils : See Lemon, Orange and Orange Blossom.

Birch (Betula lenta)

This North American tree is the common source of Wintergreen oil, with which it shares similar chemistry, properties and fragrance. The formula for the popular 19th-century "Russian Leather" men's fragrance (so named because it kept book bindings soft) was closely guarded, but we now know it was mostly birch oil.

Family : Betulaceae.

Extraction : Distilled from the inner bark after maceration in warm water. Sweet, sharp scent like some candies.

Medicinal Action : Birch is a muscular and arthritic pain reliever, a diuretic and a circulatory stimulant.

Cosmetic/Skin Use : Birch is a skin softener that soothes irritation and psoriasis and helps prevent dandruff.

Considerations : Use this slightly toxic oil carefully and, because it smell like candy, be sure to store it safely away from children.

Associated Oils :

Birch Tar Oil : The thick tar is produced from the destructive distillation of bark, which involves burning and steam distillation, and produces a smoky odor. It is used on skin infections and infestations.

White Birch (B. alba) : This Northern European oil has different, less toxic, chemistry with similar properties.

Wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens) : Native to northeastern North America, but a small and not very abundant tree, true wintergreen oil is rarely available and potentially toxic in large doses.

Calendula (Calendula Officinalis)

The oil is costly and almost never available commercially, so we plant the colorful flowers in our gardens and infuse them into an herbal oil to use as a base for essential oils. Since two different flowers are called marigold, calendula is often confused with Tagetes (see Associated Oils, below), the oil of which is more common and also more toxic. Essential oil from both plants is often sold as "calendula".

Family : Asteraceae (Compositae).

Extraction : Absolute or CO2 extraction from flowers. It has a pungent, fragrant odor.

Medicinal Action : Calendula relieves lymphatic congestion, inflammation and hemorrhoids, and is antiseptic.

Cosmetic/Skin Use : Calendula heals skin wounds, rashes, inflammation and bites. Use it on oily complexions.

Associated Oil :

Marigold (Tagetes minuta and T. patuh) : This marigold is sometimes used on calluses, but the tagetone it contains makes the oil toxic and irritating, and the oil is phototoxic. Use calendula instead. Tagetes is high in beta-carotene (the precurser to vitamin A), is deep orange and sometimes sold as "carrot oil." It has recently become popular as an ingredient in perfumes. Use with caution.

Caraway (Carum carvi)

A medieval European love potion, facial water and cordial called Huile de Venus, this "oil of love" toned muscles and softened complexions. It was also sipped to quell indigestion. Today caraway seeds are more likely to find their way into rye bread than facial products.

Family: Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)

Extraction: Distilled from the seed, the fragrance is sharp and somewhat bitter.

Medicinal Action: Caraway relieves indigestion, colds, poor circulation, dizziness, some intestinal parasites, and nerve pain such as toothache.

Cosmetic/Skin Use: A skin softener, caraway improves the complexion and decreases bruising.

Emotional Attribute: The fragrance helps overcome mental strain and improves energy efficiency.

Considerations: Skin irritant.

Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum)

Cardamom is a relative of ginger from the Middle and Far East, where it flavors Turkish coffee and East Indian chai tea. The seeds were a valued export item in ancient Greece.

Family: Zingiberaceae

Extraction: Distilled from the seed. Oleoresin. The best quality is sweet and spicy. Inferior seeds are more harsh, with a hint of eucalyptus odor.

Medicinal Action: Cardamom treats indigestion, poor appetite, diarrhoea, coughs and muscular spasms.

Emotional Attribute: An invigorating scent which East Indians have long considered an aphrodisiac.

Associated Oil: See Ginger.

CITRUS MEDICA, Linm.

(N.O.-Rutaceae)

Sans.-Karuna ; Mahalunga ; Matulang. Eng. -Citron. Hind-Maphal. Ben.-Chholongo nebu. Mah.-Kagdi limbu ; Mahalung. Punj.-Bajauri-nimbu. Guj.-Balank ; Bijoura ; Turanj. Can.-Madalada-hannu. Tel.-Madeephalamu. Mal.-Madalanarakam. Kon.-Mavalinga.

Habitat.-It is a garden plant chiefly cultivated for its valuable fruit and met with chiefly in Khasia Hills, the south-west of India, and parts of Northern India.

Parts Used-Rind, Juice and oil.

Constituents.-Similar to C. bergamia or C. acida. Oil is obtained from the rind by distillation and by expression. Expressed oil is pale-yellow, fragrant, aromatic, bitter, soluble in alcohol in 3. It contains citrene or limonene 7-6 p. c., citrol 7-8 p. c., cymene and citronellal. Dose : -½ to 3 minims.

Action.-Fruit is an expellant of poisons. Yellow pulp is an excellent aromatic and stomachic. Pulp is bitter and described as cold and dry if acid, but cold and moist if sweet. Rind is aromatic, stimulant, hot, dry and tonic, and is an anti-scorbutic. Distilled water of the fruit is sedative. Seeds, leaves and flowers are hot and dry. Juice is refrigerant, astringent and digestive.

Uses.-Its juice makes a pleasant refrigerant drink (sherbet in allaying febrile heat and thirst, and checks bilious vomiting. It is useful in bilious and remittent fevers when combined with Port Wine and cinchona barn. Thick and fleshy inner rind is made into an excellent marmalade and the pleasant preserve in sugar or honey is used in dysentery. Both fruit and preserve are somewhat bitter to the taste. Candied citron rind is well-known. It is also made into a pickle with salt, sweet oil, chillies and other ingredients, which is useful as an appetiser in various kinds of fever, dyspepsia and inflammatory affections. Rind if steeped in a vessel of wine will convert it into vinegar. Extract of cidrat is the oil of citron dissolved in spirits to which bergamot is sometimes added. Essential oil extracted by means of sweet oil from the powdered rind is used as a stimulating liniment, and is also used in perfumery soap. Essential oil of flowers and leaves extracted in the same way is considered to have the same properties. Kernel is eaten and preserved in sugar. Leaves are used in flavouring. The drug is used in scorpion-sting and snake-bite.

Herbal based Soaps & Shampoos

A Typical Batch for Household Herbal Washing Bar Soap

For 200 Kg. of Finished Product

	Kg.
Palm oil	20.0
Mahua oil	21.0
Groundnut oil	21.0
Ricebran oil	22.0
Coconut oil	11.0
Rosin	2.0
Shikakai	55.0
Sodium silicate, 40 percent	33.3
Soda ash	10.0
Solvent naphtha	2.5
Sodium hydrosulphite	2.0
Perfume	0.1
Anhydrous soap content	50 percent
Water content	32 percent

Formulations for Herbal Washing Soaps

As mentioned before, generally coconut oil, olive oil are spared in preparation washing soaps. But these are other low titer oil soaps and some potassium soft soaps are best prepared by semi-boiling/cold-made process.

Depending upon the availability of raw fats and oils, variation in the proportion of fatty oils are to be made. Combination hard fats and soft fats (oils) are to be established keeping additional consideration of their fatty acid composition. In some cases balance in acid composition may be obtained adding required quantity of free fatty acids to the fatty oils mixture.

Hard Fats are

Tallow, Palm oil, Lard, Greases etc. Non availability of one hard fat may be compensated by correct estimation of other available hard fats.

Soft Fats are

Coconut oil, Olive oil, Groundnut oil, Cotton-seed oil, Palm kernel oil, Babassu nut oil, ricebran oil, Corn oil, Castor oil and more other oils.

As coconut oil and its substitute palm kernel oil and babassu nut oil produce best soaps, these are costlier oils so cheaper oils and fats are used for making washing soaps.

Some Suggested Formulations for Washing Soaps

1. Good Quality

	Kg.
Mahua Oil	28
Palm Oil	30
Coconut Oil	38
Rosin	2
Caustic soda solution. 36oBe	52
Sodium silicate, 40 percent	37
Sodium carbonate	10
Sodium hydrosulphite	2.5
Perfume	0.2

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2. Cheaper Quality

	Kg.
Ricebran Oil	20
Groundnut Oil	9
Cottonseed Oil	30
Mahua Oil	20
Palm Oil	-18
Rosin	3
Soapstock (cottonseed Oil)	15
Caustic soda lye, 36oBe'	52
Sodium silicate, 40 percent	35
Sodium carbonate	10
Stannous Chloride	2
Perfume	0.2

In the preparation of soap with soap stone as filler, soap stone is to be added to the molten oil before saponification and kept in suspension by agitationuntil the saponification begins and the saponified mass becomes thick and homogeneous.

3. Cheaper Quality

A Typical Batch for Herbal Based Toilet Soap Oriental type

	Kg.
Mhua oil	22.0
Palm oil	16.5
Ricebran oil	33.0
Groundnut oil	16.5
Castor oil	5.5
Soapstock of cottonseed oil	5.5
Caustic soda Iye, 36oBe'	50.0
Sodium silicate, 40 percent	37.0
Sodium carbonate	10.0
Foam booster	1.0
Sodium hydrosulphite	2.5
Colour pigment	0.02
Solvent nephtha	2.5
Perfume	0.05

Perfume mixture as formulated below

	Kg.
Coconut oil	30
Salsa	50
Chitrak	20
Caustic soda Iye 39o Be'	46
Colouring matter (windsor Brown)	0.005
Sodium Hydrosulphite	1

Perfume mixture	0.403
Bargamot oil	0.108
Sassafras oil	0.108
Clove oil	0.108
Thyme oil	0.108
Oil of meroli	0.050
Tincture of mask	0.020

Formulation for Superfatted Soap (for dry skin)

	Kg.
Neem oil	66.00
Coconut oil	30.00
Castor oil (bleached)	4.00
Caustic soda Iye, 39o Be'	45.00
Bachh	1.00
Deodar	1.00
Colour-pink	0.05

Perfumes as formulated below

Perfume Mixture

Geranium oil	0.310
Bargamot oil	0.310
Lavender oil	0.062
Vetiver oil	0.062

Mostly the superfatted soaps have tallow : Coconut oil ratio of 50 or 60: 40 and have 7 to 10 percent free fatty acids added in it. Soap For Excessive Oiliness in the Skin.

For such type of soap the soap base is incorporated with about 5 percent soda ash.

Formulation of fancy Soap Type

	Kg.
Coconut oil	40.00
Malethi	60.00
Caustic soda Iye 35oBe'	55.00
Stabilizer	1.00

Perfume Mixture

Geranium oil	0.280
Bergamot oil	0.280
Citronella oil	0.140
Lavender oil	0.012
Vetever oil	0.009

Himalayan Boquet Type Parts

Colour-

Coconut oil	40.000
Antamul	60.00
Caustic soda Iye, 38oBe'	49.500
Stabilizer	1.000
Brilliant Soap Green	0.105

Perfume Mixture :

Rose Soap Type :

Bargamot oil	0.280
Palmarosa oil	0.140
Lavender oil	0.280
Lemon oil	0.140
Cedar wood oil	0.180
Tincture of Mask	0.020

Coconut oil	95.00
Castor oil (refined)	5.000
Caustic soda Iye, 38oBe'	54.500
Stabilizer	1.000

Perfume Mixture :

Palmarosa oil	0.205
Lavender oil	0.205
Citronella oil	0.205

Transparent Soap - No. 1.

(glycerine soap of market)

The transparent soaps vary greatly in composition. Usual method of manufacture is to add alcohol and glycerol in the proportion of 2 : 1 to a not saponified batch of semi-boiled soap until a rapidly cooled sample is clear, after which the batch is put into frames in the usual way. Sugar may also be added. The fats used in transparent soap are tallow and coconut oil. Upto about 30 percent castor oil is often used in the fats charge since the presence of this oil reduced the amount of alcohol, glycerol or sugar required to render the soap transparent. The anhydrous soap content of transparent soap is well under 50 percent.

A suggested formulation

	Kg.
Coconut oil	60
Babul gum	34
Castor oil	25
Caustic soda Iye 38oBe'	68
Stabilizer	1.2

Composition of sugar, water, alcohol and glycerol to be added to the saponified mass :

	Kg.
Sugar	40
Water	45
Alcohol	20
Glycerol	10

The perfume mixture from following ingredient is to be mixed with the finished soap before pouring into the frames

Lemon oil	3 parts
Geranium oil	2 parts
Palmarosa oil	10 parts
Bergamot oil	0.5 parts

The colour added is water soluable red soap colour.

Transparent Soap-No.2(by special milling method)

	Kg.
Coconut oil	22
Salai gum	65
Castor oil	13
Caustic soda Iye, 39oBe'	46

The fats and oils are purified, then saponified with pure caustic soda lye. The transparent, hot soap paste is there upon applied to cooled rollers in such a manner that in the course of 2-3 seconds the temperature is reduced from about 95oC to about 20oC. The ribbons are perfumed along with added preservatives and milled once or twice on cold rollers. Then the soap mass with an anhydrous soap content of about 71 percent, is passed through a slowly operating plodder, the head of which is cooled. The extruded strip of soap is cut in to chips or cakes. The soap obtained is extremely transparent and is ready for packing. When stored, the soap will dry without altering its shape. The soap has a final anhydrous soap content of about 73 to 75 percent.

Mottled Soap

The coloured streaks, for example, blue in a mottled soap are interspread with a white, cream or any other light colour are due to the presence of a small amount (25 percent) or as desired, of ultramarine blue added to the soap kettle before the soap is finished. Adding excess alkali, the niger is kept unseparated from the soap and as such poured in the frames in the form of two distinct but intermingled phases, only one of which contains colouring matter. The final appearance of the soap is developed by very slow cooling in the frames.

The mottled soaps are also prepared by hand mixing carefully of a coloured and uncoloured base.

Carboli Acid Soap

The soap is made by addition of commercial carbolic acid so that is has an appeal of disinfectant value. But phenolic constituent nearly impart a disinfectant odour to ordinary toilet soap. The soap is conventionally coloured with a red dye. This type of soap is also manufactured in liquid form.

Suggested Formulation

	Kg.
Coconut oil	90.00
Groundnut oil (refined)	80.00
Castor oil (refined)	10.00
Caustic soda lye, 38oBe'	90.00
Muleth	2.00
Stabilizer	0.90
Red soap dye (Oil Red)	0.20
Water to dissolve dye	2.00

Procedure

The colour dye is first dissolved in 2 kg. of water. Then the solution is mixed with caustic soda lye. The filtered solution is then added gradually to oil mixture preheated at 80o to 90oC for saponification while the mass is well agitated. After addition of alkali solution is completed, the reacted mass is crutched for an additional period of 30 minutes while heating is maintained.

Then heating is stopped and stabilizer is added and mixed. The saponified mass is allowed to be cooled down and then carbolic acid is added to the viscous soap and intimately mixed by maintaining agitation.

The molten soap is finally framed, cooled, cut, rack-dried, stamped, wrapped and packed as described before.

Medicated Soaps

These soaps are prepared taking soap-base obtained by saponification of purer grade oils and given the finishing through milling process. In the milling operation the medicinal agents such as mercuric iodide, sulphur, iodine etc. are incorporated.

Castile Soap

It is less irritative to the skin than ordinary toilet soaps and hence it is a medicinal soap and a soap for infants.

It is prepared from pure olive oil usually by cold-made process. A mixture of oils which approximates the fatty acids composition of olive oil (Table-2) may also be used for making castile soap.

It is a hard soap of white or yellowish white in colour. The mildness of castile soap is due to the absence of capric and lauric acid soap (source of skin irritation) present in the coconut oil and similar oil soaps.

Preperty of good solubility can be achieved in the castile soap by preparing it using oil composing largely of oleic acid, thereby avoiding coconut oil for such solubility benefit. Refined groundnut oil with added quantity of free oleic acid with corresponding amount of glycerol may made a mixture nearly equal to the composition of olive oil.

The finishing operations are as like that of toilet soaps.

CASTILE SOAP BY BOILING PROCESS

Process Description

Step 1 : 1000 kg., of crude olive oil and 675 litre of caustic soda lye of Sp. Gr. 1.09 are put in the pan. The mixture is boiled with live steam for three hours then sufficient quantity of salt is added in to it to separate the spent lye. Supply of steam is stopped and the whole mass is allowed to rest for 4 or 5 hours. Spent lye is drawn off.

Step 2 : 450 litres of caustic soda lye of Sp. Gr. 1.160 is added into the soap mixture and boiled again for 4 or 5 hours, taking care that the soap does not boil over the pan. Spent lye is again separated by addition of salt and following previous method. Spent lye is drawn off and the mass is boiled again with addition of 490 litres of caustic soda lye of Sp. Gr. 1.210.

Step 3 : Final operations are followed as described in the finishing of full-boiled milled toilet soap adding necessary perfume and preservatives.

Some Suggested Formulations for Castile Soap

	No. 1	No. 2
	Kg.	Kg.
Olive oil	40	30
Groundnut oil	30	-
Cottonseed oil	-	30
Babchi	30	40

	No. 3
	Kg.
Olive oil	30
Cocoa butter	30
Palm karnel oil	40

	No. 4
	Kg.
Palm oil (bleached)	50
Sesame oil	20
Chitrak	30

The caustic soda lye used in the corresponding steps as described before are :

67.5 litres of Sp. Gr. 1.090

45.0 litres of S.P. 1.160

56.0 litres of Sp. Gr. 1.210

Translucent Coconut Oil Soap

Coconut oil	20 Kg
Caustic soda lye, 36o Be'	10 Kg
Caustic potash lye, 30o Be'	1½ Kg
Oil of anise	60 gm
Oil of peppermint	40 gm

The coconut oil is first saponified with caustic soda and then caustic potash is added with constant stirring. The mixture is then heated gently until the saponified mass becomes clear. After about an hour the kettle is uncovered and oil of anise and oil of peppermint are added and well mixed. Final finishing may be given as desired.

Some Suggested Formulations for Disinfectant Soaps

No. 1 Parts

Sulphonated Neem oil	99
Mercuric chloride	1
Soda ash to neutralise	required quantity

No. 2

Cocoa butter	48 parts
Ammonium sulphate	20 parts
Water	19 parts
Mercuric iodide	1 part
Soda ash to neutralise	required quantity

Liquid Antiseptic Soap

Cottonseed oil	100 kg.
Alcohol	66.6 litres
Water	150.0 litres
Sodium hydroxide	15 kg.
Potassium carbonate	3.33 kg.
Ether	5.0 litres
Phenol (liquified)	8.33 litres

The oil is taken in a pan and then 33 litres of water and 66.6 litres of alcohol are added in to it. The mass is mixed thoroughly with the help of agitator. Sodium hydroxide and potassium carbonate being dissolved in 110 litres of water is added slowly to the oil mixture with stirring. For colouring, water soluble Rhodamin derivative of requisite quantity (proportion mentioned before while discussing colouring of soaps) is first dissolved in 7 litres of water and then added to soap mixture. Finally phenol and ether are added and thoroughly mixed.

Deodorant Soaps

These soaps, classed toilet soap are prepared by the process like that of medicated soaps. In the milling operation deodorizing ingredients are incorporated. Some of the deodorant soaps are superfatted.

Modern anti-microbial agents have largely replaced the phenol, cresylic acid formulations of soap.

There are three most commonly used classes of anti-microbial agents used in toilet soaps of today. These are :

bis (hydroxy phenyl) alkanes; poly brominated salicylanilides; halogenated carbanilides.

These agents effectively suppress the growth of Gram-positive skin bacteria responsible for body odour at low concentrations. The following two combinations of anti-microbial agents are recommended to be used in deodorant toilet soaps which have superior inhibition power of growth of large number of bacteria over a non medicated toilet soap.

Combination in Soap No. 1.

Darhald	0.75 percent
Babchi	0. 75 percent

Combination in Soap No. 2

Mulethi	0.67 percent
Khus	0.67 percent
Duk	0.67 percent

VARIOUS INDUSTRIAL SOAPS

Textile Soaps

For scouring and cleansing operations in the manufacture of textiles, various s